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PART D: LEADING AND MANAGING INDIVIDUALS AND TEAMS 
 
382
 
2.1.1 Evaluating Maslow's theory 
Maslow's hierarchy is simple and intuitively attractive: you are unlikely to worry about respect if you are 
starving! However, it is only a theory and has been shown to have several major limitations. 
(a) 
An individual's behaviour may be in response to 
several needs
, and the same need may cause 
different behaviour 
in different individuals, so it is difficult to use the model to explain or predict 
an individual's behaviour in response to rewards. 
(b) 
The hierarchy ignores the concept of 
deferred gratification
(by which people are prepared to 
ignore current suffering for the promise of future benefits) and 
altruistic behaviour 
(by which 
people sacrifice their own needs for others). 
(c) 
Empirical verification 
of the hierarchy is hard to come by.
(d) 
Research has revealed that the hierarchy reflects UK and US 
cultural values
, which may not 
transfer to other contexts.
2.2 Herzberg's two-factor theory
Herzberg
identified two basic need systems: the need to avoid unpleasantness and the need for personal 
growth. He suggested factors which could be offered by organisations to satisfy both types of need: 
hygiene and motivator factors respectively. 
Herzberg's
two-factor theory (Herzberg et al, 1959) is based on two needs: the need to avoid 
unpleasantness, and the need for personal growth. 
(a) 
The need to avoid unpleasantness is satisfied through 
hygiene factors
.
 
Hygiene factors are to do 
with the environment and conditions of work, including:
 

Company policy and administration 

Interpersonal 
relations 

Salary 

Working 
conditions 

The quality of supervision 

Job 
security 
If inadequate, hygiene factors cause 
dissatisfaction
 
with work (which is why they are also called 
'dissatisfiers'). They work like sanitation, which minimises threats to health rather than actively 
promoting 'good health'.
(b) 
The need for personal growth is satisfied by