The Process of Administrative and National Delineation
An important dimension of the Bolsheviks’ policy of strengthening their position in
the non-Russian areas of the former Russian empire was to redraw or re-delineate
national and administrative borders. This was seen as an essential step toward
efficient control and modernization in the region. As early as 1920, following
Ryskulov’s promulgation of the plan to create a “Turkic Republic,” Moscow be-
gan discussing the possibility of dividing Turkestan along ethnic or national lines.
Vladimir Lenin himself set out the procedure for doing so:
1. Authorize the creation of maps (ethnographic and other ones) of Turkestan
showing its division into Uzbekia, Kyrgyzia,
26
and Turkmenia.
2. Then determine the possibility of merging or dividing these three areas.
27
Lenin proposed this as a response to what he saw as a dangerous process of
consolidation occurring among the Muslim elite. Even though the Soviet govern-
ment did not yet reach a decision to redraw the borders, the Uzbeks and Turkmen
were henceforth accepted as national groups and would be treated as such within
major official institutions at all levels.
The effort to find an effective balance between the “rights of peoples to national
self-determination” and the organization of administrative and economic life con-
tinued. In 1922 the government developed a general plan for the administrative
division of the Republic of Turkestan. That same year a group of Soviet and Com-
munist Party activists from the Semireche (Seven Rivers) and Syr Darya provinces
declared that the Kara-Kyrgyz, or “Black” Kyrgyz, should enjoy the rights of a
separate people. A new project thus emerged, with the goal of creating a separate
administrative unit for these people, the “Mountainous Province.” Following stormy
discussions, however, this plan was dropped.
28
In 1923 communists from the Fer-
ghana Valley sent Tashkent a draft proposal calling for the creation of a separate
and autonomous Ferghana province within the Republic of Turkestan. Officials in
Tashkent promptly rejected this proposal, labeling it a “political mistake.” In doing
so they indicated that local authorities did not yet consider the issue of territorial
administration from the perspective of ethnic or national distinctions. All such
proposals to redraw boundaries arose from a struggle between Tashkent and local
elites on how to redistribute powers, resources, and authority among them.
The idea of redrawing the borders along ethnic or national lines did not originate
in Central Asia, but had been brought to the region from without, namely Moscow.
It first appeared on the agenda at the end of 1923. This time it was decided to incor-
porate into the discussion the “Bukhara Republic” and the “Khorezm Republic,”
106 ABASHIN, K. ABDULLAEV, R. ABDULLAEV, KOICHIEV
along with the “Turkestan Republic.”
29
In the spring of 1924 the central government
managed to persuade local elites of the need to pursue these reforms. Then, on June
12, 1924, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party
adopted a resolution “On the National Delineation of the Central Asian Republics.”
This document laid the foundations of the delineation process that followed.
The original plan for delineating the borders sought to merge most of Central
Asia into a single powerful Republic of Uzbekistan that would become a “union
republic” of the USSR as a whole. Parts of the regional territory were also desig-
nated for inclusion into a Republic of Turkmenistan, which would also become a
“union republic” of the USSR, while still other areas were to be incorporated into
Kazakhstan, which since 1920 had existed as an autonomous national republic
within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR). It was also
planned to create three “autonomous regions,” with the Tajiks to acquire such a
status within Uzbekistan, Kara-Kalpakia to become an autonomous region within
Kazakhstan, and Kara-Kyrgyzia to become part of either Kazakhstan or of the
RSFSR.
Responsibility for working out the borders of the proposed new republics was
assigned to the Central Asian Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Com-
munity Party. Chairing the Bureau’s “territorial committee” was Isaac Zelenskii,
although the work was administered by his deputy, a Latvian named Otto Karklin.
Supervising the project as a whole was Josef Stalin.
Membership of Zelenskii’s “territorial committee” included Uzbeks (e.g., Ra-
khimbaev, Islamov, Khodjaev, Segizbaev, Homuthanov, Maksumov, Manzhara,
Sultan-Kary), Turkmen (e.g., Naitakov, Atabaev, Nazarov, Paskutskii), Kazakhs
(e.g., Hodzhanov, Asfendiiarov, Kuchukovskii, Ambekov), and Kyrgyz (e.g., Tok-
baev, Aidarbekov, Abdrakhmanov, Khudaikulov, Sulembaev, Lipatov), as well as
Tajiks (Khadzhibaev, Imanov) and Kara-Kalpaks. The planning process proved
difficult. All officials participating in the discussions were forbidden to travel until
the process was completed. Any public mention of the discussions and especially
of the antagonisms emerging in the process was also strictly outlawed until such
time as the leaders had reached a common decision.
In essence, the delineation process turned on the balancing of contradictory al-
liances between the Bolsheviks and the diverse elites of Central Asia. Within the
region itself the process of drawing new borders consolidated a new distribution
of power and resources at both the practical and symbolic levels. Jadids, Young
Bukharans, and Turkestan Muslim reformers had long wished to see the creation
of a “united Turkestan.” The creation of “Uzbekistan” on the territory of the ear-
lier provinces of Bukhara and Turkestan (Khorezm was added later) represented
a particular concession to them.
30
As the capital of this new state the drafters re-
jected Tashkent, with its Russian “imperial” connotations, and instead chose the
ancient city of Samarkand. This underscored the element of historical continuity
with pre-Russian times and celebrated the settled, Muslim, and bilingual (Turco-
Persian) culture of the population of that city. At the same time, by separating
SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 107
from Uzbekistan the Kazakh and Turkmen lands populated by former or current
nomads, the drafters limited any possible pan-Turkic ambitions the Uzbek leaders
may have harbored, and created political and symbolic “counterbalances” to them.
This administrative separation of nomadic cultures from settled ones arose directly
from the previous imperial tradition, which assumed the nomadic peoples to be
more open to modernization and Russification than the oasis dwellers. In this con-
nection, it is worth noting that the commission seriously considered the possibility
of transferring “Russian” Tashkent to Kazakhstan.
Viewed in the context of these discussions, the Ferghana Valley was on the pe-
riphery of the main transformations taking place, and far removed from the main
symbolic centers. The one important intrigue in the valley concerned the borders
of the proposed Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Region. In the end it was decided to
assign the region, with its nomadic population, either to the RFSFR or to the new
republic of Kazakhstan.
31
This issue had been hotly disputed since 1922. The reason
the issue was decided as it was is because Kyrgyz activists who were lobbying for
their own administrative unit succeeded in gaining ideological and personal support
from within the central government.
The Uzbek side put forward its own vision for the national borders. It did not
object to the plan to create a Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Region and easily con-
sented to the transfer of parts of the Ferghana Valley to the RSFSR. It assumed this
stance as part of the play over the more complex and urgent issue of Tashkent, to
which Kazakhstan also laid claim. By sacrificing the economically insignificant
piedmont areas of the Tian Shan Mountains and Alai Valley, the Uzbek side gained
a powerful bargaining chip in advancing its claims in other areas. By volunteering
to give up these marginal areas of the Ferghana Valley, Uzbek leaders absolved
themselves of the charge that they were uncompromising and wanted to keep ter-
ritories everywhere under their control.
The process of dividing the Ferghana Valley into “Uzbek” and “Kara-Kyrgyz”
parts involved a variety of issues that related directly to the borders themselves.
The first of these concerned the characteristics by which a person qualified as being
“Uzbek” or “Kara-Kyrgyz,” and how to handle groups whose linguistic and cultural
identity was unclear. The second issue concerned the process of territorial division
in areas where “Uzbeks” and “Kara-Kyrgyz” lived discretely or in close proximity,
and at the same time-shared pastures, roads, and irrigation systems. The third issue
concerned the manner in which a Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Region could develop
its economy to the point that it could exist as an independent administrative unit.
Members of the Uzbek and Kara-Kyrgyz commissions held robust debates on these
issues over the summer of 1924, in the course of which both sides sought to strike
a balance between the various arguments, interests, and lobbying efforts.
Any effort to create a separate administrative entity for nomadic and moun-
tainous peoples who were not urban dwellers was bound to come up against the
problem of economic viability. Without cities that could serve as centers of trade,
administration, and culture, an independent “national” life for Kara-Kyrgyzia
108 ABASHIN, K. ABDULLAEV, R. ABDULLAEV, KOICHIEV
was inconceivable. The cities of the Ferghana Valley were inhabited mainly by
“Uzbeks”
32
and other groups who were clearly part of the settled population, and
by no stretch of the imagination could be recast as “Kara-Kyrgyz” nomads. The
one way to solve this was to shift one of the Ferghana cities populated mainly by
Uzbeks into the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Region. Members of the commission
who represented the future Uzbekistan had to accept this change. The choice fell
on the easternmost center of the valley, namely Osh, around which many nomads
were living. Although the city was small, it adjoined the sacred mountain known
as Tahti-Sulaiman (Solomon Throne), which attracted many pilgrims and gave
Osh a significant reputation.
In spite of this, the Kara-Kyrgyz negotiators insisted on the transfer to Kara-
Kyrgyzia of Andijan, one of the largest administrative and business centers of
the valley. Its supporters underlined the city’s importance to those Kara-Kyrgyz
who inhabited the eastern part of the Ferghana Valley, and argued that it had to be
incorporated into the autonomous region for the area to fulfill its economic po-
tential. The Uzbek side responded by pointing out that ethnic Uzbeks constituted
a substantial majority of the population of Osh, and that they had every right to
national self-determination. In this case, the ethnic or national argument appeared
more convincing than the economic one.
On August 20, 1924 these and other contentious issues were submitted for dis-
cussion to the Territorial Committee. This body decided to transfer the formerly
nomadic districts of Kokand, Namangan, and Margilan counties and some sepa-
rate rural communities to the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Region, while keeping
the primarily settled districts within Uzbekistan. The district of Osh, excluding
certain territories, was transferred whole to Kara-Kyrgyzia. Both sides eventually
agreed with this decision, and so the issue of borders between the two republics
was resolved. The outcome was duly reported by Stalin. It was then decided that
the remaining issues in contention could be considered later.
In October 1924, the highest authorities in Moscow decided in favor of the plan
to create new national republics and regions in Central Asia. At the close of that year,
representatives of Kara-Kyrgyzia moved from Tashkent to Pishpek (later Frunze,
now Bishkek), which became the capital of the newly formed region.
33
Throughout
the winter and summer of 1925, new governing structures and institutions were
being created and elections held to fill administrative positions. In May 1925 the
Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Region was renamed Kyrgyzia.
No sooner were the major new institutions constituted than the question of ad-
justing the boundaries between Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzia arose. Kyrgyz officials
presented an entire list of new territorial claims. The provincial Commission on
Delineation, which included T. Divnogorskii, L. Zulfibaev, L. Defe, and others,
set forth these claims in November 1925. At stake were uninhabited territories,
separate settlements, and entire districts. The Kyrgyz authorities insisted that all
these territories be transferred to the autonomous region. The leaders of Kyrgyzia
also raised the question of settlements in a number of areas of the former Margilan
SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 109
and Osh districts that had been transferred to Uzbekistan, among them Bulakbashi,
Kulinsk, and Markhamat. Beyond this, they proposed a new boundary in the former
Andijan and Namangan districts. Finally, they put forward some claims affecting
the modified boundaries of the former Kokand district, including proposals that
certain settlements in the Sokh River Valley be transferred to Kyrgyzia.
Kyrgyz lobbyists actively used ethnographic arguments whenever the opportu-
nity presented itself. Specifically, they pointed to the fact that the population of many
settlements in Ferghana’s east, former Andijan, Margilan, and certain districts of Osh
were of “non-Uzbek” ethnicity. The exchanges on these matters were replete with
references to the populations as “Turks,” “Kipchaks,” “Kashgaris,” and “Tajiks.”
The “Turks,” while close to the Uzbeks by language and traits of every-day life, led
a nomadic way of life and therefore had close ties with the Kyrgyz. For purposes
of delineation they could well be classified as people from the “nomadic” part of
the valley. The Kipchaks were former nomads who also had close links with the
Kyrgyz. Further, the Kyrgyz argued that the Kashgaris, many of whom registered
under the new name of “Uyghur,”
34
and the Tajiks were distinct nationalities and
should not automatically be counted on the Uzbek side when determining the
national majority in a given district.
Viewing all of these claims as a breach of the previously reached balance
of interests, the Uzbek authorities responded by again raising the issue of the
Uzbek-populated city of Osh and the Osh district, which they proposed to annex
to Uzbekistan. Also, Uzbekistan laid claim to Margilan’s former Aravan district,
which had been transferred to Kyrgyzia, and part of the Aim district that had been
removed from Andijan. In these and other cases the Uzbek side alleged that partition
would disrupt the integrity of irrigation systems, and that river heads that had long
been used to irrigate “Uzbek” land had ended up as part of the Kyrgyzia region.
To compensate for this, the Uzbeks proposed to transfer certain piedmont districts
(Kashgar-kishlak and Khanabad) to Uzbekistan.
Objections and petitions sent by local people to the authorities exerted pres-
sure on decision-makers both in 1924 and during the discussions of 1925–27. The
archives attest that most of them arose from the unwillingness of many residents
to become a part of the Kyrgyz region, and their aspirations to remain within Uz-
bekistan. One of the numerous appeals put it this way:
From citizens of the Osh region we have heard rumors that a delineation of
Central Asian borders is about to be carried out, and that separate Uzbek and
Tajik republics and provinces are to be established. We, the 2,250 citizens of
the Ichkilik district who signed this appeal, ask the Turkestan Central Executive
Committee, in the delineation process, to keep us in the district of Margilan, that
is, within the Uzbek republic. For decades we have been engaged in agriculture.
There are no divisions among us and the Uzbeks and we live as one family. Our
economic life is in every way connected with the Uzbeks. Taking all this into
consideration, we hope that the Turkestan Committee will honor our request that
we be left as part of the Margilan district of the Uzbek republic.
35
110 ABASHIN, K. ABDULLAEV, R. ABDULLAEV, KOICHIEV
Similar letters sent by residents of Andijan, Margilan, and Osh districts all men-
tioned that the local Kyrgyz were on friendly terms with Uzbeks, had long been
engaged in agriculture rather than lives of nomadism, and would like to remain
within Uzbekistan. “We are now more Uzbek even than those Uzbeks in the city,”
wrote Osh residents in one such petition.
36
Other reasons cited by those who did not
want to be part of Kyrgyzia were its weak economic conditions and the requirement
in Kyrgyz schools to study the Kyrgyz language. It is hard to determine whether
such appeals were generated by the Uzbeks or genuinely reflect the population’s
concern over its future. It appears that both motives existed.
Throughout 1926 a series of special commissions on the regulation of frontiers
between the Central Asian republics considered all of these mutual claims. The
commissions were set up by the Central Executive Committee of the Communist
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