The Dynasty over Time
When the nomadic Uzbeks conquered Central Asia in the sixteenth century and
laid the foundations of the Shaybanid state, they delivered a shattering blow to the
heirs of Timur (Tamerlane) and their feudal leadership. The country was increas-
30 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
ingly divided thereafter, and bloody feudal wars prevailed between Bukhara and
Khiva. In the early eighteenth century the Ferghana Valley area separated itself
from Bukhara and an independent Kokand Khanate appeared.
The Kokand khans were said to be linked through the figure of one Altun-Bishik
to the great Babur and to Tamerlane himself. Most contemporary Muslims, as well as
European scholars, accepted this mythological genealogy and the legitimization of
the Kokand dynasty it implied. According to this legend, Babur did not retreat from
Samarkand directly south to Afghanistan, but instead diverted through Ferghana.
One of Babur’s wives had just given birth to his son, but the dangers threatening the
fugitives forced them to leave the newborn to the mercy of fate. They placed him in
a richly decorated cradle, along with much jewelry, and left behind a faithful servant
who was to report on the baby’s fate to Babur. Nearby were some Turkic villages
where Kyrk, Kipchak, Ming, and Kyrgyz lived near each other as one society. These
people found the child and gave him the name Altun-Bishik, or “Golden Cradle.”
He was raised in one of the villages, and when he reached adulthood received a
wife from each of the villages. In due course the eldest of his wives gave birth to
Khudayar or Ilik-Sultan, progenitor of the Kokand dynasty.
Neither Babur nor his contemporary biographers so much as mention Altun-
Bishik. It is likely that the rulers of Kokand concocted the entire legend in order
to link their dynasty with the descendants of Genghis Khan and thus consolidate
their power. According to legend, Altun-Bishik died in 1545, and his son Tangriyar
became the ruler of Ferghana, but with the title of bey instead of khan . The same
title was given his descendants up to and including Alim Khan. When finally the
first khan, Shah Rukh, ascended the throne he constructed a new citadel at Kokand,
while his son Abd al-Kerim built a second one.
1
The events of 1709 are interestingly described in Tarixi Turkestoni (History of
Turkestan), written by Mullah Alim Makhdum-Hajji. An assembly of elders and
the nobles from Jankat, Pilahkan, Tufantip, Partak, Tepa-Kurgan, Kainar, and other
towns elected the intelligent and generous Shah Rukh Khan. No sooner had he
been elected than he instructed them to find a convenient place to build a castle.
The notables decided on a spot between two rivers, constructed there a citadel sur-
rounded by buildings and yards, and immediately enthroned the new Shah Rukh
there. Mullah Alim believed that Shah Rukh ruled for twelve years and died in 1721.
2
By that year his state included the territories of Kokand, Isfara, and Margilan.
The eldest of Shah Rukh’s three sons, Abdu-Raim, succeeded his father. Abdu-
Raim’s permanent residence was at the village of Dikan-Toda until 1732, when he
began reconstructing the city of Kokand.
3
At this time the ruler of Khujand, the
leader of the Yuz tribe named Ak-Buta Bey, decided to put an end to Abdu-Raim’s
rule. However, Abdu-Raim chased down and beheaded his enemy, then proclaim-
ing himself Abdu-Raim, ruler of both Khujand and its new territorial acquisition,
Kokand. In due course Abdu-Raim also gained control of Andijan. But Abdu-Raim
eventually became severely ill, which brought on madness. Seizing on their ruler’s
mental instability, his officials killed the khan in 1733.
4
Abdu-Raim left behind a
THE KOKAND KHANATE 31
son, Irdana, and several daughters, but the conspirators chose as ruler his brother
Abdu Karim Bey, who promptly moved to Kokand and again rebuilt it.
For the first quarter-century of its existence, the Kokand Khanate displayed all the
typical features of a medieval Central Asian state. These included feuds between the
oppressed farming people and the politically dominant nomadic populations, palace
revolutions, and continuous warfaring with all its neighbors. However, geographical
location, the structure of its population, and its climate gave the new Kokand Khanate
marked advantages. The core of the state was the largest oasis in the region, framed
by the Kuramin and Alai mountain ranges, as well as several smaller ranges. A huge
valley irrigated by one of the two great inner Asian rivers, Syr Darya, stretches from
east to west and is open on the east via mountain passes to Kashgar in Xinjiang, and
to the west to the plains of Transoxiana, the region between Syr Darya and Amu
Darya—the point of contact and competition between the Muslim and Buddhist-
Confucian worlds. Thus, its geography made the khanate a natural transit route in
every direction.
With regard to its cultural and political influence on the various ethnic groups of
Central Asia, the Kokand Khanate was particularly important for the Kara-Kyrgyz
(Kyrgyz) and Kyrgyz-Kaysak (Kazakhs). By contrast, the Khanate of Bukhara in-
fluenced the Sarts and Tajiks, as well as the nomadic Uzbeks, while it was natural
for the major Turkmen tribes—the Teke, Yomud, and Salar peoples—to be drawn
toward the Khanate of Khiva.
In 1746, the Chinese conquered Kashgar and defeated the Buddhist Kalmyks
in Dzungaria. On the giant steppe that stretches from Mongolia to Hungary, such
events pushed hordes of nomads into new regions, where they formed new na-
tions. Kalmyk nomads, having lost their state, shifted westward and invaded the
Ferghana Valley.
Abdu-Karim sent a detachment against the Kalmyks under the command of
Kipchak-bachi, but the latter was killed and his troops fled, opening the road to
Kokand for the Kalmyks. Pazyl Bey, the khan of Ura-Tyube, learned of this situation
and brought his army to help. After a bloody battle, the Kalmyks retreated from
Kokand and the Buddhists’ aspirations in Muslim Central Asia came to nothing.
After the death in 1750 of Khan Abdu-Karim, his son Abdurakhman ruled for
approximately a year before being deposed. Power then passed into the hands
of Irdana who, after further intrigues, ended up as the ruler of Kokand. Irdana
Bey continued to expand the territory of his state, acquiring the city of Isfara and
treacherously killing its ruler, Abdurakhman-Batir, whose son Narbut Bey survived
only because he had gone to stay with his grandmother. Irdana Bey also organized
a campaign against Ura-Tyube, but failed and retreated toward Khujand. Taking
advantage of a dust storm, Pazyl Bey and his allies attacked the retreating Irdana
and captured the soldiers from Kokand, many of whom they executed and from
whose heads was built a kala-minar, or pyramid of heads. Irdana himself managed
to escape to Kokand.
Irdana succeeded in his next campaign against Ura-Tyube. He killed all his pris-
32 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
oners from Ura-Tyube and from their heads Irdana built a new kala-minar—Mullah
Avazmat wrote that in 1859 he saw this tower.
5
In 1758, weakened by constant wars
with his neighbors, Irdana Bey had to accept the suzerainty of China. In 1762, the
Chinese ambassador declared to the khan of the Middle Horde of Kazakhs that the
Chinese would launch a spring campaign against Turkestan and Samarkand, for
which they demanded people, horses, bulls, and rams. Learning of this plan, Irdana
and the rulers of Ura-Tyube and Khujand, along with the Kyrgyz sultans, sent a
letter to the Afghan monarch, Ahmad Shah, the region’s most powerful ruler at the
time, asking him to save the Muslim world from the invading infidels.
6
It was a rare event in the history of Central Asia when leaders of various regions
united under the founder of the new Durrani dynasty in Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah,
to resist the Chinese. According to Ch.Ch. Valikhanov, “this alliance did not last
but it is important that it stopped China’s plans to extend its borders to Tashkent,
Sairam, Suzaka and Turkestan.”
7
Irdana ruled for more than a decade, but his successor did so for only three
months before plotters killed him. His murderers and several other representatives
of the Kokand nobility persuaded one Narbuta to take over, and they proclaimed
him ruler. From the start of his reign Narbuta Bey worked to suppress separatist
moves by the rulers of Chust and Namangan, and he devoted much effort to subju-
gating Khujand. The death of the ruler of Ura-Tyube and Dzhizak enabled Narbuta
to add those areas to Kokand, as well. These tasks completed, Narbuta then had
to manage his domain. He had eleven children, five of them daughters and six of
the total from enslaved women. Narbuta appointed his brothers as governors in
Namangan and Khujand, his eldest son as governor of Margilan, and another son
to Tura-Kurgan.
The early years of Narbuta’s reign are described in the book of a Russian traveler,
Philip Efremov, who was captured by Kyrgyz in 1774, sold as a slave to Bukha-
rans, and returned to Russia through India and England only in 1782. According
to Efremov, Narbuta had hostile relations with Bukhara but was recognized as
khan by the Chinese, with whom he maintained an alliance. This stability enabled
Narbuta Bey to govern for a long time and for his lands in the Ferghana Valley to
achieve relative prosperity. New irrigation canals were built and the area of irrigated
land increased. Commerce expanded and the quality of urban craftsmanship rose.
The city of Kokand itself thrived. Kokand’s chroniclers of the day reported on the
low cost of goods and favorable conditions for merchants during Narbuta Bey’s
rule. Eastern chroniclers, it should be said, took low prices and order as the main
indicators of social welfare.
8
The highly valued tanga served as the main currency
in Kokand, but at the time of Narbuta Bey’s accession there existed no smaller
coins for change. He therefore introduced into circulation a very small coin, the
pulus.
This suggests that during Narbuta Bey’s reign there was no inflation and the
standard of living significantly improved. Indeed, over the more than thirty years
of Narbuta Bey’s rule no popular uprisings surfaced against the government.
Narbuta died in 1801 and was succeeded by his son, Alim. He continued to ex-
THE KOKAND KHANATE 33
pand the territory of Kokand by conquering the valley of Angren, Chimkent (now
Shymkent), Sairam, and the entire Tashkent region, a key area along the caravan
route to Russia. Seeing that his state was strong enough to resist Bukhara, Alim
accepted the title of khan, and the state he ruled became known officially as the
Kokand Khanate, with its capital at Kokand.
Kokand’s political significance grew during Alim Khan’s reign. He created a mer-
cenary army consisting mostly of Tajik mountaineers from Karategin, Shugnan, and
Badakhshan, as well as Iranians. This force supported him in the struggle to centralize
power and later became the core of his new and much larger army. He also opened trade
relations with Russia, although these did not develop further inasmuch as safe passage
for caravans could not be guaranteed owing to the absence of diplomatic ties.
Alim Khan also took several steps to reorganize religious life. Thus, he abol-
ished the religious title ishan, and gave land and livestock to the poor and so-called
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