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Educating the Student Body
TAbLE 6-3 Interscholastic Sports Choices and Percentage of Middle and 
High Schools Offering Them
Sport
Middle Schools
(percent)
High Schools
(percent)
Team Sports
Baseball
35.7
79.6
Basketball
76.4
90.9
Cheerleading
50.9
77.3
Field hockey
7.1
10.2
Football
53.0
71.0
Ice hockey
2.4
14.3
Lacrosse
2.1
3.8
Soccer
32.3
60.3
Softball
45.2
77.9
Volleyball
57.3
71.4
Water polo
0.5
2.6
Individual Sports
Badminton
4.2
7.2
Bowling
3.0
17.2
Cross-country running
38.9
68.4
Cross-country skiing
3.2
5.9
Golf
22.1
68.4
Gymnastics
5.2
10.1
Riflery
2.1
3.8
Swimming
6.9
37.8
Tennis
12.6
53.0
Track and field
52.1
73.2
Weight lifting
9.9
23.8
Wrestling
28.7
49.6
SOURCE: Adapted from Lee et al., 2007.
schools implemented various forms of team-cut policies for participation 
in interscholastic sports. The practice requires students to meet minimum 
performance qualifications before joining a school-sponsored sports team. 
Such policies include maintaining a designated grade point average, meet-
ing daily attendance requirements, and adhering to individual school dis-
trict code-of-conduct policies. One might speculate that such policies may 
prohibit interscholastic sports from becoming a viable means of promoting 
maximum student participation in sports and other physical activity.
In summary, trends in participation in sports are encouraging. 
Compared with physical education, however, it is difficult to expect every 
child to participate in sports. Although the available data indicate a nearly 
60 percent participation rate, the data do not provide specific information 

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Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
Approaches to Physical Activity in Schools
 
283
about the participants. In addition, studies and national surveys have not 
provided useful information about those children who do not participate in 
sports, who may be in the greatest need of physical activity. Although the 
opportunity for physical activity through participation in interscholastic 
and/or intramural sports does exist in most secondary schools, the extent 
to which participation in sports contributes to children’s health and positive 
behavior change for active living is unclear.
Barriers to Participation in Sports
Although the literature documents the benefits of participating in high 
school sports in such areas as academic achievement, attendance, and 
self-esteem, opportunities for participation in sports have not escaped the 
effects of the budget cuts that have plagued education over the past several 
years (Colabianchi et al., 2012).
In addition, interscholastic sports have been dominated by a competi-
tive sports model (Lee et al., 2007), which may fail to engage and support 
all students. Policies encouraging and funding intramural sports, which are 
usually more inclusive and less competitive, can increase student participa-
tion in sports. The CDC recommends inclusive policies and programs as a 
strategy for enabling students to meet the 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines 
(HHS, 2008).
According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) (2012) 
report K-12 Physical Education: School-Based Physical Education and 
Sports Programs, school district officials assert that budget cuts have 
impacted predominantly transportation and facilities, both critical to after-
school sports programs (GAO, 2012). According to data from the School 
Health Policies and Practices Study (SHPPS) (2006) (Lee et al., 2007), an 
estimated 29 percent of schools that offered interscholastic sports in 2006 
also provided transportation home for participating students, up from 
21 percent in 2000. Transportation costs, a large part of overall school 
athletic budgets, are impacted not only by the need to transport students 
to practice facilities and competition venues and then home but also by 
increases in fuel prices and maintenance costs. 
Facilities and equipment are another recognized barrier to participa-
tion. Budget cuts have hindered school districts from building new facilities 
or upgrading existing ones. Where facility and land limitations prevail, 
school districts have resorted to developing partnerships and contractual 
agreements with local community recreation centers or universities to use 
their facilities for various sports program. A lack of funding for sports 
equipment has further reduced the number of participating students, as the 
number of uniforms available per sport has caused the selection process to 
become more stringent. Colabianchi and colleagues (2012) also conclude 

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Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School
284