CHAPTER II
Approaches to Literary Text and Textual Strategies
In order to discover the implied meaning of a work of art, one is primarily
governed by the use of language. The meaning of a literary writing is
realised by the author who creates a significant situation by deploying
certain linguistic strategies. Resultant intensity of language, reflected in
the form of texture, becomes the valid limit of what the author wants to
convey. His creative skill weaves an intricate text through the fine details
of linguistic organisation. The words are selected , for example, as much
for the resonance they create as the associations they evoke and the
interaction they generate semantically in conjunction with syntactic and
phonetic contouring within, across and beyond the text itself. An analysis
of literary text depends on ability to see these linguistic associations and
to unravel the connections and meanings at different levels of language
organisation. Of all literary genres, poetic language is marked by the
greatest possible intensity. While there is no continuous linear movement
through the syntax of one sentence after another, the rhythm keeps
returning on itself, driving towards its own centre, forcing one to grasp the
total meaning of the words. A study of a poem must include an account
of cohesive features, such as repetition of items as well as more complex
32
relations of collocation and elision, absence or presence of discourse
markers and structural- semantic sense connections across sentence
boundaries. Hence, it is interesting to employ an analytical framework
which involves stylistic variations and effective language use. Although
the common opinion about specific linguistic features properly associated
with literature has been frequently challenged, yet there are some
linguistics features that are associated with literary register. The following
remarks by Brumfit confirm the opinion:
There are a number of linguistic features which can be isolated: rhythm,
rhyme, alliteration, assonance, metaphors, etc., and which are combined in such a way
as to reinforce the message conveyed and to link with other linguistic
devices across
the whole text
so that a unity and consistency of effect is produced. Such layering of
linguistic features is not so pervasive in so-callled non-literary examples
.1
In a literary discourse* there are vital and increasingly complex
relations between the words as we read them and follow the semantic
configurations that are created in our minds through experiential patterns.
Though the text supports itself through its own verbal elaboration, yet it
presupposes knowledge of a certain type of social conventions and the
exchanging of the contracts. The literary tradition at least, does not
always rely on another medium or on the co-presence of some extra-
textual object. A good piece of literary composition is syntactically
elaborate, its every sentence is stacked with co-ordinate and dependent
33
constructions. It is also lexically elaborate, with abstractions designed to
cover all lines of meaning and obviate any possibility of
misunderstanding. Further, the quality of poetic resonance is also a matter
of the management of language. Literature is not a mere language variety.
Indeed, a literary text always generates a context of its own in which
different varieties of language can be sufficiently mixed and still
accepted, as is the case of The Waste Land. Any deviation from the
norms of lexis or collocations and syntax would be inadmissible in
common parlance. But in the domain of literature, poetic licence includes
different levels of formality, mutually exclusive lexis and variable syntax.
Even slangs coexist as an example of a mixed variety of language
appropriate to a special poetic register. There is also a particular sort of
heterogeneity in a literary context.
The true class of a literary genius is displayed in the use of language,
the turns and twists of phrases, to represent the usual things from a fresh
point of view. One negotiates the extent to which an alternative world or a
parallel world is fabricated. The image of a world represented in the
literary text has a different relationship with external reality. Although
this newly created world is shaped from the raw material of the physical
world and it also relies on it for its interpretability, it does not have any
direct correspondence with it. The task of the writer is no easy one as he
34
selects, combines and alters the elements of the raw material into a new
form of reality that incorporates artistic perception or truth discovered by
him to challenge the assumptions of the physical world. Therefore, it can
find its true meaning only within the realm of a text. The reader is, then,
asked to imaginatively conceive and recreate this image of reality. He
does so by using evidence from the language of the text and by relating
one element with another of the texture. The medium of communication
between the writer and the reader is the text he creates from his own
knowledge of environment. Thus, the reader’s creative role and the
imaginative involvement engendered by the writer’s role encourage a
dynamic interaction, between the reader, the text and the external world.
In the course of this interaction, the reader constantly seeks to form and
retain a coherent picture of the world of the text. Gradually, the possibly
static and unquestionable reality of the text is replaced by “a fluid,
dynamic reality in which there is no final arbiter between truth and
falsehood. There is a possibility of a meaningful dialogue”,2 suggests
Brumfit. A literary text is, thus, a construct of language in the context of
which one can respond directly. However, some skill is required to make
a systematic study of a literary text that is a sum of a combination of
linguistic, socio-cultural, historical and semiotic understanding.
35
Language, thus, is central to literature and description of the
language-use in literature is central to any critical approach as it confers
an objectivity upon the work of art. It is only through the linguistic
character that one can define the kind of object a literary text is. It is all
the more true in the case of poetry, since poems do not create their
meaning and logic out of nothing. The language that they use borrows
from outside concepts and organisation of beliefs representing semantic
propositions. It is, again, language that ensures how a poem is linked to
the outside world. Certainly, an author can control and restrict the
meaning of words by manipulating collocations. Also, in some longer
poems the poet can enforce a new variety of linguistic syntax as is the
case with Millton’s epics, The Paradise Lost and The Paradise
Regained. But in the ultimate experience of readers, poems are
unequivocally in a language that exists independently outside the domain
of physical world. However, a referential relation with outside world is
retained throughout. As every language situation is defined culturally as
well as linguistically, one must focus one’s attention on the use of
language. It is the prominence of communicative event that imparts
sentences used in a text with meaning and makes them functionally
viable. There is always a reason to assert why a certain sentence is
inserted and not the other. It is because of the fact that such choices have
36
to do with the topic, the style, the social etiquette, tradition and the
rhetorical design. These factors, though external to language, are central
to structural organisation of a discourse situation. Every text must be seen
as possessing certain internal formal characteristics as a consequence of
its performing a certain role within a communicative situation. All
linguistic performances make references to recognised cultural
conventions of a very regular and restricted kind.
The poet as a mature participant communicates in a discourse
situation and shows a greater knowledge of these conventions. A
proficiency in the use of an enormous range of registers of language is
displayed along with skill to perform linguistically according to the
demand of a particular situation. The poet basically creates a matrix of
logical opposites and relations through the fictional concept. Thus a poet
conceives a structural network of concepts through the words and their
semantic value and in this manner chops up the flux of world into an
aesthetic reconstruct. It is the syntax of the language that provides the
poet a scope to juggle with concepts. Every sentence serves to participate
in the making of a fictional universe. This inter-relatedness of syntax and
semantics in poems becomes particularly interesting. However, meaning
of a poem is not an abstraction or an extractable content divorced from the
forms of syntax and phonology. These are, in fact, the means of a poet’s
37
linguistic conceptualisation of his experience, sequenced by the syntax to
induce a novel fictional perception in a reader. Thus, the poetic use of
language invariably involves a deviant ordering or a specialised
structuring. David Lodge believes that language of poem is, however,
more highly structured than language outside the poem. In considering
the language of poetry, it is prudent to begin with what is “there” in the
poem - “there” in the sense that it can be described and referred to as
unarguably given by words.
One can, of course, comment on the structuring of the text without
a formal knowledge of grammar. But, obviously, such a knowledge is
very useful. For what distinguishes poetry from mere versification is that
in the case of the former the phonological regularities are matched and
reinforced by grammatical regularities or irregularities in a balanced
structure. This view is summarised by MacMammond that syntax is
poetic when grammatically equivalent constituents in connected speech
are juxtaposed by co-ordination or parataxis, or are otherwise prominently
accumulated.
A poet generally works under the self-imposed restrictions. These
are related to the phonological components, the syntax and the semantics.
Such limitations do not form part of the grammar of language in general.
This aspect of poetic process, within the larger context of the language
38
structure, is corroborated by generative grammar. A recognition of
deviant structure forms an essential element in our response to poetry. It is
also the case that they are felt not to be deviant within the context of the
poem. Donne’s “A Noctumail upon Lucies Day” provides an example of
such deviations. The first stanza of the poem contains the clause (nee)
Who am Their Epitaph. Its deep structure would be equivalent to the
sentence: I am Their Epitaph. This also serves as an example of a non
sentence. It breaks selectional rules that specify noun phrase. Further, in
the succeeding stanza there occur such sentences as “I am every dead
thing”, “I am the grave of all” and “I am none.” All of these sentences
break the same selectional rule . This poem also contains the sentence:
“All these seems to laugh”. These sentences, again, are an example of the
breaking of selectional rule : verbs which demand animate subject take
here an inanimate subject. A number of such irregularities are to be seen
in the context of the poem. In fact, it seems likely that these linguistic
structures, deviant from the common ones, underline the sense of chaos
and breakdown of natural order.
A logical way involves stating the rules which generate these
structures or one can lose them as deviant structures, ignoring their real
value. In order to appreciate their function in the context, an effort is
needed to reconstruct a grammar of such poem. This implies that the poet
39
creates a new language with its own rules, though supported by
grammatical suppositions. But for the reader it is like mastering a new
language. The whole point of creating this language seems to be that it
enables the poet to say not only the things that could be said in regular
forms but also in regularly irregular forms. However, one can understand
the importance of new language and its function through grammatical
knowledge. Such deviations from rules become the source of creative
writings. The superficial strangeness and the syntactic complexity of a
poem are associated with ad hoc transformations. These deviations have
to be postulated’ for the analysis of the text. A knowledge of deep
structure, no doubt, would help understand such irregularities which are
the marked features of poetry.
The linguistic analysis of literature is an explanation of why and
how a work of art means what it does. M.A.K. Halliday asserts,
“linguistic analysis of text is not an evaluation of a text, it is an
explanation of how and why it is valued as it is
.”3
So any analysis of
cohesion, together with other aspects of texture, will show why the text is
interpreted in a certain way and why it is ambiguous whenever it is so. It
explains the nature of conversational inferences and the meaning one gets
out of the text. Further, the presuppositions from culture, from shared
experience and from the situations and the surrounding texts are the only
40
available aid to understand the textual components and the semantic
system. Hence, it is the text-forming or the textual components that
specially provide linguistic means through which such suppositions are
made. The conclusion will not be about good or bad nature of a text but it
is likely to explain why a text is so. The means of cohesion, a reasonably
comprehensive picture of this aspect of texture, suggests Halliday, can
offer an “insight into what it is that makes a text a text
.”4
In Guy Cock’s opinion: “The notion of text is semantic rather than
grammatical
.”5
Sometime, a single sentence may be used to represent a
text, yet it gains meaning from the situation in which it is uttered or
written or from its relation to other sentences with which it occurs.
Texture, or the quality which binds sentences together into a text, depends
firstly on register—the necessity to combine linguistic features with
situational features to create meaning. Secondly it relies on cohesion—
the semantic (and in some cases lexico-grammatical) ties between one
sentence and the other. Halliday’s observation in this regard supports the
view: there is “one specific kind of meaning relation that is critical for the
creation of texture: that in which one element is interpreted by reference
to another
.”6
Text, then, with the exception of a single sentence text,
consists of a number of sentences bound together by cohesive ties. These
sentences that give meaning to each other assume a special signification
41
as a semantic unit called text. Further, in a literary message, texture is
more likely to be created by internal cohesion than by any reference to a
situation in which the message is received. But the density of cohesive
ties may vary from text to text. This may happen especially in the domain
of literature when the author, in order to produce certain specific effect,
uses the texture to win a more active participation of the reader.
Leech offers an alternative view that linguistic description cannot
be applied to literary texts without proper adjustments. Instead, he
incorporates three stylistic concepts that include cohesion along with two
others: foregrounding and cohesion of foregounding. Leech elaborates:
*7
“[it] is the aim of linguistics to make statement of meaning.” He holds
that meaning includes every aspect of linguistic choice: semantic,
vocabulary, grammar or phonology and context of the situation. Meaning,
thus, is looked upon as a functional unit, a complex phenomenon, its
various aspects being relateable to features of the external world in the
form of prepositions, referents, referring expressions, sense relations and
sense properties. These aspects are also related to the several levels of
linguistic analysis. In fact, the context of situation refers to the whole set
of external features of the world considered to be relevant in the analysis
of an utterance or a text at these levels. But, in literature, one has to
construct such a context from the text itself.
42
In Widdowson’s opinion , on the other hand, a literary text can be
constructed as a “secondary language system” -- “a micro language
”8
-
formed by the relation which the writer has set up between the language
items within a text. For the analysis of a literary text, one must recognise
not only the intra-textual relations but also the extra-textual relations that
exist between the language items occurring in a text and the code from
which they derive. Also, the intra-textual relations set up between
linguistic items within a literary text create a contextual meaning, while
the extra-textual relations provide the significance which the items have
according to the code, i.e., their referential meaning. Widdowson further
states: “It is typical of literature that these two sets of relations do not join
to produce one new unit of meaning, they overlap to create a unit of
meaning which belongs to neither one nor other, a hybrid unit that derives
from code and context and yet it is neither of them
”.9
Literature, thus, can be studied as a mode of communication. For
an appreciation of what a writer tries to convey, one must study the means
he is using in relation to the linguistic resources he draws on. The
communicative effect must be connected with the end the writer achieves
through linguistic means. To add to the means, style emphasises the
contribution of form to the content, i.e., style is looked upon as meaning.
For Michael Riffaterre, the relation between linguistic and creativity is
43
subtle. He opines: “Literary interpretation stands halfway between
semantics and aesthetics
.”10
Whereas traditional criticism emphasises the aesthetic aspect,
stylistic approach has shifted the attention to the basic problem of
meaning. Since poetry says one thing but means something else, the
thrust of critical discovery is towards the undercurrent of meaning. At the
surface level, words in a given type of literary discourse carry meaning in
relation to non-verbal referents. In fact, in descriptive poetry everything
rests on the representation of reality. The characteristics of a poem are
explained as a departure from reality or from the audience consensus as to
what part of reality should be projected through the relationship between
words, their assonance and dissonance, stress patterns and the things. The
stress on consonance means a pictorial touch to the plain record of facts.
Further, dissonance is generally associated with symbolic discourse. In
fact, the representation of reality is a verbal construction in which
meaning is achieved by reference from words to words and not to things.
In structuralists’ view, in general, a literary work can be best understood
as an awareness of verbal structure rather than in terms of reffentiality.
The form a text imposes on a meaning is also key decipherment of that
meaning.
44
In this regard, Widdowson rightly suggests that the purpose of
stylistic analysis is to investigate how the resources of a language code are
put to use. It is the knowledge of the code and the convention that
becomes the essential component of creativity. Stylistics is concerned
with the literary message. Its purpose is to unravel what a linguistic unit
means in communication and how different conventions reveal
themselves through the way messages are organised in literary texts. This
type of study also takes into account the social function of language.
In literature, the message is self-contained and presupposes no
wider context. So, everything necessary for the interpretation is to be
found within the text itself. One concentrates on the text and does not
bother about distracting social appendages. In the case of text analysis,
stylistics is mainly concerned with the patterning of language, as
Widdowson opines, and it makes no presupposition of its artistic value.
He suggests that by investigating the way language is used in a text, one
can make apparent those linguistic patterns upon which an intuitive
awareness of artistic values ultimately depends.
Widdowson also believes that literary messages manage to convey
meaning because the poets organise their deviations from the code into
patterns and they are discernible in the texts themselves. Though the
writer diminishes the ordinary meaning of language by breaking rules, yet
45
he makes up for this deficiency by placing the deviant items in a pattern.
These items acquire meaning by relations to each other in the context of
the message. In fact, the relations constitute a secondary system of
language that replaces both code and context. Thus, the interpretation of a
text involves both the recognition of extra-textual as well as intra-textual
relations. The two sets of relations, thus, overlap to create a unit of
meaning that derives both from the code and the context. As literature is
connotation, the secondary meaning as well as the primary become a
matter of personal associations. But this secondary language system is
primarily established by the context. In a literary context, the association
of items is strengthened by phonological relation, lexical linkage and
syntactic parallels. The identical syllabic structures and their consonance
lend the words an additional significance in such context and create a
hybrid unit of meaning. Widdowson rightly states that poetry “specially
tends to destroy the distinction between denotation and connotation
.”11
Similarly, the difference between phonology and syntax tends to
disappear in poetry because phonological structures operate directly in
establishing relation between different words. For example, in Pope’s
The Rape of the Lock, the Bible acquires a special significance by being
placed alongside a number of the same class of objects as puffs , powders,
patches, billet-doux and other ornaments of female vanity. This
46
association of words in the context is strengthened by phonological
relations that take on the function normally assigned to syntax. It is by
compounding linguistic distinctions that literary language is able to
express density of meaning.
Considering the social aspect of language functions, Widdowson
asserts that language is used mainly to codify reality. He regards
language to be the socially-sanctioned representation of the external
world. It is a tool to exercise control over the chaos of external world.
The language forms follow accepted ways of looking at the world through
linguistic code and conventions. Language, thus, becomes a social
convenience. However, it does not mean that there is nothing beyond the
reality which the language represents. Widdowson makes an important
point when he states that the existence of religion and art is an evidence
that they are much aware of reality beyond the bounds of social
conventions. Individuals have their needs which these social conventions
do not satisfy. Thus, art and religion are the means to serve as an outlet
for individual attitudes as he suggests: “this expression would otherwise
disrupt the ordered pattern of reality which society promotes and upon
which its survival depends. Art and religion are a recognition that there is
other reality
...”12
47
However, the true nature of this reality is hard to define as it is both
a part of conventional reality and yet apart from it. Religion, for instance,
deals with gods who have human attributes. The gods are both human and
non-human at the same time - omnipresent forms, immortal yet affected
by mortal longings. No natural process conceives them but they help
define only the otherworld reality. This reality, thus, is related to the
conventional one in the same way as literary language is related to its
code. The relationship between the two types of reality is explained by
Widdowson in these terms: “What literature and, indeed, all art does is to
create pattern out of deviation from normality and these patterns then
represent a different reality from that represented by conventional code.
In so doing, literature gives formal expression to the individual’s
awareness of a world beyond the reach of human communication”. An
interpretation of literature, thus, involves a discovery as to how these
patterns of reality are designed through linguistic deviations. The literary
text needs a closer look and an active participation to comprehend the
kinds of patterning and the meanings they convey. These patterns could
be recognised as parts of an ordered whole. It is true that there is often a
hierarchical arrangement of patterns: smaller ones function as components
of larger ones. Since literary texts create their own system of language,
they inevitably create a different reality. The primary focus of proposed
48
analysis is upon intra-textual relations within the message. T.S. Eliot’s
poetry is chosen to illustrate the patterns of language and reality which are
presented in his writings. The technique suggested by Widdowson is to
pick out features in the text which appear to the first impression as
unusual or striking in some way and then to explore their relationships.
Structuralists like Gerard Genette confirm the method: literature
being primarily a work of language, literary appreciation must include
linguistic material. This includes sound, forms, words and sentence
constituents. By doing so, one rediscovers the message in a code. The
immanent structures are analysed to uncover it and it does not arrange
anything from outside. The process implies a study of large unit of
discourse and study system from higher level of generality rather than
sentences, such as narrative or descriptive and other major forms of
literary expression. Structuralists’ search is not confined to structures as
directly related to objects. The search is for the pattern of meaning and
system of latent relations which analysis constructs as it uncovers them.
This is characteristic of structuralists’ approach that they concentrate on
the text itself for rationality of understanding. Further, the thematic
analysis tends to culminate into a structural synthesis. In this synthesis,
different themes are grouped in networks in order to extract their full
meaning from their place and function in the system of the work. This
49
approach aims at reconstituting the unit at work. Further the principle of
coherence and used to reach the bone structure, it is a penetration into the
internal relations.
Against the background of a number of theories -- some of which have
been referred to in the earlier part of this chapter, it has become difficult
to approach a given text or a group of texts in an empirical way. First
describing what an object is and then drawing conclusions from the
description poses a formidable challenge. Even approaches that are
explicitly textualist, i.e., which are concerned with the ground
structuralist and feminist critics in the present times. They believe that
any grouping of text as “central” or “important” is ultimately an ad-hoc
one. It is made consciously to serve or reflect the purpose of a particular
sub-culture in a particular time or place. However, all the theorists believe
that a common acceptable feature of literary text is its thick and rich
fabric. An approach to text must inspect that fabric at certain points and
try to link parts to the whole texture. The methodology for this purpose
must incorporate elements from different theories for the analysis of text
and its meaning. It is believed that only an eclectic approach can make
interpretation in the linguistic structures <
differ widely in then-
understanding of what constitutes textualitds
The immediate challenge to such an ap]
stems from the post-
50
some valuable insight into the meaning and significance of a text. One of
the implicit assumptions in most contemporary theories is that given the
arbitrary relation between verbal sign and referent, an important aspect of
signification is to find out what happens in the space between sign and
thing. According to the cultural theorists, the proper focus of attention is
text; to read a text is to examine the culture which produced it. The
author must use a language that is culturally coded. Culture, thus,
becomes a co-author to the text. A mode of thought that dominates a
culture may appropriate the significance of words that have an important
function in the structuring of relation between the individuals and between
the individuals and their world. Such words in the literary text became
heavily marked.
The eclectic approach of this study, thus, incorporates the essential
elements of these text-related theories. The procedure of analysis
includes a search for the features in the text that appear at first sight to be
unusual or striking in some or the other way and then explore their
signification and significance. Anne Cluysennar recommends that a
“consideration of fairly obvious lexical or syntactical features of a literary
text can be made to yield semantic information that may be found relevant
to its literary description and evaluation
.”14
51
The simplest way to approach a text is to somehow analyse the
formal properties that each literary work sets up, especially the way in
which its particular elements interact, and balance of forces that must be
understood as a unique structure. Such dominant structures are linguistic
patterns that may reveal meaningful event at any level of linguistic form.
These events must be related at all levels with each other and with formal
poetic structure, and to wider aspects of a poem. Following these
precepts, one can analyse the dominant lexical and syntactic structures
and relate them to verse movement. This way one can reach a unique
balance of semantic interaction. Hence, text is the starting point and the
present study examines the formal features of language that it comprises.
The focused area is the lexico-grammatical processes and their role in
both the making of a text and its interpretation. A considerable attention,
however, would be given to lexical and other features of textual
construction and word association representing one of the contra
distinguishing constituent of poetry- poetic image. Conventionally, such
associations are divided into two main classes of associations:
paradigmatic and syntagmatic. Thus, given the word “dog”, syntagmatic
associations would be the ones that form some sequential relationship
with the stimulus word - “dog”. The responses, such as “bark”, “bite”,
“furry”, would allow the arrangement of a grammatical sequence to the
52
left or right of the word. The paradigmatic responses involve words
. which are from the same grammatical class as the stimulus item, that is,
applied to the word “dog”, the associations would produce examples, such
as “eat”, “wolf5, “animal” and “pet”.
This shows that, important as is the role of grammar, many factors
other than grammar are involved in the making of text. Moreover, a text
is not a grammatical unit but a semantic and even a pragmatic one. The
text coheres in its real-world or ideal-world context, semantically and
pragmatically. Also, it is internally and linguistically coherent. For the
latter fact, the term cohesion has been already applied, referring to the
actual form of linguistic linkage. Though the texts are realised in
grammatical units, but the grammatical units occurring in a literary text
are often very different from the grammatical units of common parlance.
The significance of the text depends upon our knowledge of
specifying grammatical facts. This aspect of the study involves the
connective links, or lack of overt links, and their close connection with the
context would determine the satisfactory coherence of the text. The study
particularly focuses on the following features:
i)
syndectic and asyndectic
ii)
structural parallelism
53
iii)
thematic connection (or extra-textual connections) and the
textual orientation (in respect of place, time, factuality and
participants’ relations)
iv)
discourse strategies
The relation between parts of text is achieved by connective
features that fall into the following four categories:
a)
pragmatic and semantic implication
b)
lexical linkage
c)
prosody and punctuation, and
d)
grammatical devices.
Now, in the absence of a foolproof method for the analysis of
literary style, knowledge of language is combined with aesthetic response
to appreciate more clearly what the writer has succeeded in conveying.
So, the framework of analysis includes the following levels of analysis:
I)
lexis
II)
grammar
III)
figures of speech, cohesion and context of discourse.
Although grammar is represented by only one of these categories, it plays
significant role in the identification of other categories as well.
A Lexical features entail the features of vocabulary. For example, how
far the vocabulary is formal or informal, monosyllabic or polysyllabic.
54
How do these contribute to the cohesion of the text and its significance?
Does the text use unusual words, technical, archaic or dialect words, that
are borrowed from different registers.
It is also useful to make a list of words belonging to the major word
classes to note the categories (in terms of form or meaning) they belong
to. For example, one may notice the use of more abstract than concrete
nouns in a particular passage, or that it contains specific verbs of
movement - dynamic or static. The other classes are nouns, adjectives
and adverbs. Such lexical features can provide a good insight into the
style of a particular writer. These stylistic features, whether lexical or
grammatical, tend to be a matter of frequency or, more particularly, a
matter of relative frequency.
Grammatical devices specify the way of structuring sentences. It is
to see how they are constructed. How complex are the sentences? What
type of complexities are found in them? Is there marked use of co
ordination or subordination or linked or unlinked co-ordination along with
a role of adverbials and discourse references? Is there anything to convey
the kind of clause structure or phrase structure that features in the
information processing?
One can regard figures of speech as special regularities and
irregularities that are exploited in literature for the communicative power
55
and value. Such figures of speech as metaphor, irony and paradox
encompass communication at the non-literai level. They usually arise
from the irregularities of language. But there are also figures of speech
that involve an explanation of regularities in language. These include
various types of parallelism, repetitive patterns of structures and words
with the special effect of sound initiating meaning. This feature is
specially associated with poetry.
Like other areas of a literary text, figurative language is one of
primary concern to any type of literary study. Specially, when an element
of cognitive complexity is generated through some structure. These
structures pertain generally to metaphor, simile and personification.
Apparently, metaphors operate at the level of structure. The
signifier/signified relationship assumes special importance within a
metaphor. It is assumed that there is an arbitrary relationship between
verbal sign and referent and that word is constructed through an
interaction between culture and language. This process enables the
language to construct ideas about the world. It is a quasi-mysterious
cognitive process to reinstate a sub code of rhetoric.
The analytical framework needs incorporate the central feature of
English poetic tradition, the metrical structure. Some practically useful
56
way of characterising verbal rhythm would be included in the framework
of stylistic analysis.
A text is generally encoded in the form of paradigmatic axis. The
simplest way to describe the interaction of this relation is to compare it
with a chain, stressing that a chain is made up of a series of links. The
syntagmatic axis refers to the horizontal, linear progression of the text -
the process of linking. Thus, a literary discourse consists of a
paradigmatic axis, comprising signifiers selected from a range of
possibilities.
An author has a number of more or less synonymous signifiers
(word-forms) available to express a particular signified (concept) and
from these available choices one (or more) is selected for any one or
more of a variety of reasons ~ its register, its overtones, its sound, its
ability to rhyme with word-form already chosen. The list also includes
concreteness or abstractness. As soon as this selection is made — or when
one item is substituted for another - the influence of syntagm comes into
operation by giving the signifier (word-form) a context. Even then the
words not chosen hover round it. This happens partly because a word is
defined by what it is not, and partly by reason of semantic relations or
sound similarities or some other association -- cultural or individual -- so
that a core meaning is surrounded by a penumbra of associations or
57
overtories. These overtories are analitative or descriptive, some of them
culturally coded. Each signifier then fits into a certain register or
context. For example, “gee-gee” is a child term and suggests much more
colloquial context than “horse” or “steed” that suggests a more formal
context.
Thus, the signifier-signified relationship interacts with syntagm/paradigm
relationship and it is presented in the multi-dimensional model on the next
page:
g
m
g
n
k
g
n
asl
\
m
o
\
xN
\
n
o
\
i\
\
Syntagm^tic(chain)
59
This multi-dimensional relationship is a shifting one since it can direct
more attention to either the signifier or the signified. A signifier is like a
window, in that it can be transparent in case of prose, whereas in verse,
cultural convention and long tradition encourage the reader to
unconsciously perceive the signified with signifier. Another important
consideration is that the penumbra involves the intellectual and sensory
appeal to something concrete. With sensory appeal, the text exercises
more control. Sometime a floating of the signifier occurs when the
context detaches the conventionally signified (or concept) from the
signifier(or the form). The floating signifier leaves indeterminate the
signified that the whole context seems to demand within the dimension of
interacting syntagm/paradigm axis. The syntagmatic context lays
emphasis on syntagm or paradigm that further implicates the paradigmatic
signifier/signified relationship. So, the analytical process exploring such
complication of the paradigmatic goes on as a continual dialectic within
synthesising process of the syntagm.
Another important factor, that complicates the paradigm is
figurative signification. This is an area which is strongly affected by
syntagmatic axis, and can be regarded as one more produce of the way
signifiers are combined syntagmatically. The relationship between
paradigm and syntagm generates figurative signification. The
60
syntagmatic axis connects signifier in such a way that in certain
combinations unusual chains of reference are generated within connected
paradigmatic entities. What characteristically complicates die figurative
movements along such a chain of signifiers can be described as a
dislocation of surface meaning of the obvious relationship between the
signifier and the signified. There is an element of cognitive complexity
inherent in a situation that pertains to metaphor, simile and
personification. The above-drawn multi-dimensional model
accommodates this paradigmatic complication as well.
Finally, we look at the features which have to do with how
sentences, and indeed the whole discourses, are placed in a context. This
includes the way sentences fit into the wider context of the discourse,
including its relations and various associations called cohesion. A
discourse as a whole presupposes a particular situation. In literature, a
reader creates a discourse situation by inference from the text itself.
There is an author-reader situation in every literary text. It may be formal,
informal or casual. This situation in which a text represents point of view
towards the character or events is always significant. A crucial aspect of
syntagmatic axis is the forging of cohesive links between elements that do
not occur in the clauses or the sentences. Cohesion stands for the intra-
sentence relationship that it builds up between pieces of information and
61
the cohesive ties. Cohesion operates beyond the confines of single
sentence and produces stylistic and literary effects, especially as a
foregrounding device.
Further, cohesion is an aspect of literary language which shows a
general diachronic change. For example, a heavy and explicit use of
cohesion may contribute to a passive receptive role, (especially of the
reader), whereas the use of more implicit cohesive ties can encourage a
more active and imaginative engagement with the text. Leech neatly sums
up the relation:
“Cohesion operates syntagmatically in conjunction with congruence and
coherence by which is meant the relationship between paradigmatic choices at various
places along the syntagmatic axis. It subsumes such concepts as lexical set, and
register (including register shift or register mixing)”15
Texture as “weave” suggests a sequence of sentences or utterances
interwoven structurally and semantically. It, generally, refers to a
sequential collection of sentences which form a unity by reason of their
linguistic cohesion and semantic coherence. In Halliday’s view, texture is
the component of language that has to do with the way language is
constructed as a text. In its basic form, it is the mode of making links
with the situation. However, texture as a metaphor means the arrangement
that weaves the fabric of language into a close pattern. Applied to a text,
it involves not only the unifying features but also idiolectal features. All
62
of them determine the choice of style which distinguishes one text from
another. For example, different kinds and densities of imagery and
devices of rhetoric. Textuality, on the other hand, is a property of all text.
It implies its aceptability or the use for the reader. Its situation is relevant
to the context and informationality to the degree of new information. The
inter-textuality relates one text to another. Texture is, thus, that property
of the text which specifies individual text.
A clause of average length runs into a number of sentences, each
with a different textual meaning. It involves a number of related but
independent choices. So, one of the interesting areas of study is the
principle that governs the sentence structure internally. This internal
texture is the structural counterpart of cohesion. Thus, neither cohesion
alone nor- internal structure alone, suffices to transform a set of sentences
into a text. Texture is in a way a product of the interaction between these
two. The third and final essential component of the text is the structure of
discourse. In fact, every genre has its own discourse structure. Even
informal spontaneous conversation is highly structured. However, other
forms of discourse are more obviously structured than ordinary
conversation. So, the presence of certain elements in a certain order is
essential to the formation of text. A typical organisation, to be more
precise, involves one of number of typical organisations. It acquires
63
texture by virtue of adhering to these discourse forms. Obviously,
literary forms, including the strict verse form are culturally established.
Further, norms of metrical use define such genres as dramatic monologue,
free verse, and the like. All of them fall within the general category of
discourse structure. They are also aspects of texture and combine with
inter-sentence structure and intra-sentence cohesion to define the total
text-forming resources of the culture.
Thus, the analysis of cohesion, together with the other aspects of
texture, makes it evident as to why the text is interpreted in a certain
manner. It also enables us to establish why it is ambiguous in
interpretation. It also explains the nature of inferences that the reader
draws out of a text. The study aims to embrace the culturally shared
experience of the participant. It is, again, the text-forming and textual
components of the semantic system that provide the linguistic means for
making peace of position. To map out these essential aspects of texture, a
framework has been devised that incorporates the linguistic stylistic
means. Text-linguistic has been often used for the study of the principles
in the structures of various forms of texts. The task of the reader is to
discover the linguistic features that cause the sentences to cohere. It is
recovering the ties that bind the text into a cohesive whole. So, texture
suggests the sequence of sentences or utterances interwoven structurally
64
or semantically into a unity by reason of cohesive devices and semantic
coherence. An analysies of texture implies measuring the distinctive
quality of a text. Any description of text is a selection from the myriad
details and infinity inter-relationships. The best one can hope to achieve is
selection of such aspects as appears to have been placed in the foreground
of the text itself. This also locks the attention into hermeneutic circle of
interpretation. An author makes a selection of word forms for any one or
more of a variety of reasons: its register, its overtone, its sound and its
ability to rhyme with others already chosen. As soon as selection is made,
the influence of syntagm comes into operation. This selection provides the
words with a context. This concept of choice is also central to stylistic
study. The style is a set of conscious or unconscious selection of a set of
linguistic features from all the possibilities of language. The effects of
these features can be understood only by intuitively sensing the choice
that has been made. Thus, in order to study the poetic text an analytical
framework has been designed to explain our response to the selection. The
intuitive response is supplemented by an objective account of style. A set
of distinctive features has been isolated that makes Eliot’s style easy to
identify; for example, lexical repetition, comparisons, parallelism and
discourse strategies, -etc. In the present study, this definition of style
becomes the basis of the linguistic identity as a whole.
65
The study, thus, employs the emerging canons of criticism in the
form of this linguistic stylistic framework for the analysis and evaluation
of Eliot’s selected poetry and plays. The poet, the critic of culture and
dramatist, as a powerful influence in the literary world, provides us with
numerous examples of innovative technique and precise use of words in
his writings. The critical analysis aims to study technique separately. The
study would be different from subject matter as Mark Schorer rightly
points out:
“technique is the means by which the writer’s experience which is his subject matter,
compels him to attend to it, technique is the only means he has of discovering,
exploring, developing his subject, of conveying its meanings and finally of evaluating
it
.”16
A study of Eliot’s technique presentation and how he uses his tools to
achieve semantic density is a helpful discovery in the form of the
thickness, resonance and the recurring themes. It is specially interesting to
study what technical tools have been employed to reach the partly
verbalised and partly formulated thoughts. How sharp are these means in
the representation of thoughts and impressions through inner perspective.
This focalisation incorporates a wide variety of means, such as interior
monologue, direct free thoughts, indirect thoughts, free indirect thoughts,
order of the syntax, leit motifs and imagery. It is important to note how
these different means contribute to overall texture. Also how the playful
66
use of language creates sound patterns and rhythms. It is useful,
especially, to mark the value of sound that has been exploited in making a
link to meaning and context. Also,, the way an author chooses words for
its nuances - its association and appropriations. From a number of
synonyms or words, he must chooses the one whose nuances best fit the
need of his work or how does he condense meaning through metaphors. A
number of such features form a part of texture and create a rich pattern of
forms and meaning in Eliot’s writings.
67
References
’Christopher Brumfit and Ronald Carter, eds., Literature and Language
Teaching(OxfoTd: Oxford University Press), p. 8.
2 Ibid., p.48.
3M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan, Cohension in English(London:
Longman, 1976), p. 325.
4Ibid., p. 326.
5Guy Cock, “Text, Extracts, and Stylistic Texture”, Literature and The
Language Teaching, p. 152.
6M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan, Cohension in English, p. 327.
«■*
Geoffery Leech, et. al..English Grammar for Today: A New
Introduction(London: McMillan, 1962), p. 158.
8H.G. Widdowson, “Stylistics” Contemporary Criticism: An Anthology,
ed., V.S. Seturaman (Madras: McMillan, 1989), p. 156.
9Ibid.,p. 159.
10Michael Riffaterre, Ibid., p. 126.
nH.G. Widdowson, Ibid., p.159.
52H.G. Widdowson,Ibid., p. 163.
13H.G. Widdowson,Ibid., p. 164.
14Anne Cluysennar, quoted in John Stephons and Ruth Waterhouse
Literature Language and Change: From Chaucer to the Present{London:
Routledge, 1990), p. 15.
15Leech, et. al.. English Grammar for Today: A New Introduction, p. 159.
16Mark Schorer, “Technique as Discovery” Twentieth Century Criticism:
The Major Statesments, eds., Williaam J. Handy and Max West Brook,
(New Delhi: Light and Life Publishers, 1974), p. 71.
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