Labial Dental Alveolar
Post-
alveolar
Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal
m
[a]
n
[a]
ŋ
Plosive
/
affricate
fortis
p
t
tʃ
k
lenis
b
d
dʒ
ɡ
Fricative
fortis
f
θ
[b]
s
ʃ
x
[c]
h
[d]
lenis
v
ð
[b]
z
ʒ
Approximant
l
[a]
r
[e]
j
[f]
w
[g]
a. Most varieties of English have
syllabic consonants
in some words, principally [l ̩, m̩, n̩], for example at
the end of bottle, rhythm and button. In such cases, no phonetic vowel is pronounced between the
last two consonants, and the last consonant forms a
syllable
on its own. Syllabic consonants are
generally transcribed with a vertical line under the consonant letter, so that phonetic transcription of
bottle would be [ˈbɒtl ̩], [ˈbɑɾl ̩], or [ˈbɔɾl ̩] in RP, GA, and Australian respectively, and for button [ˈbʌʔn̩]. In
theory, such consonants could be analyzed as individual phonemes. However, this would add several
extra consonant phonemes to the inventory for English,
[2]
and phonologists prefer to identify syllabic
nasals and
liquids
phonemically as /ə
C
/.
[3][4]
Thus button is phonemically /ˈbʌtən/ or /ˈbatən/ and
bottle is phonemically /ˈbɒtəl/, /ˈbɑtəl/, or /ˈbɔtəl/.
b. /θ, ð/ are realized as stops in accents affected by
th-stopping
, such as
Hiberno-English
, the
New York
accent
, and
South Asian Englishes
. They are merged with /f, v/ in accents affected by
th-fronting
,
such as some varieties of
Cockney
and
African American Vernacular English
. See
Pronunciation of
English ⟨th⟩
.
c. The
voiceless velar fricative
/x/ is mainly used in
Hiberno-English
,
Scottish
,
South African
and
Welsh
English
; words with /x/ in Scottish accents tend to be pronounced with /k/ in other dialects. The velar
fricative sometimes appears in recent
loanwords
such as chutzpah. Under the influence of
Welsh
and
Afrikaans
, the actual phonetic realization of /x/ in Welsh English and White South African English is
uvular [
χ
], rather than velar [
x
].
[5][6][7]
Dialects do not necessarily agree on the exact words in which /x/
appears; for instance, in Welsh English it appears in loanwords from Welsh (such as
Amlwch
/
ˈæmlʊx/), whereas in White South African English it appears only in loanwords from Afrikaans or
Xhosa
(such as gogga /ˈxɒxə/ 'insect').
[5][7]
d. This sound may not be a phoneme in
H-dropping
dialects.
e. This phoneme is conventionally transcribed with the basic Latin letter ⟨r⟩ (the IPA symbol for the
alveolar trill
), even though its pronunciation is usually a
postalveolar approximant
[ɹ̠]. The trill does
exist but it is rare, found only in some
Scottish
,
Welsh
,
[8]
South African
[9]
and
Indian
[10]
dialects. See
Pronunciation of English /r/
.
f. The sound at the beginning of huge in most British accents
[11]
is a
voiceless palatal fricative
[ç], but
this is analysed phonemically as the consonant cluster /hj/ so that huge is transcribed /hjuːdʒ/. As
with /hw/, this does not mean that speakers pronounce [h] followed by [j]; the phonemic transcription
/hj/ is simply a convenient way of representing the single sound [ç].
[12]
The
yod-dropping
found in the
Norfolk dialect
means that the traditional Norfolk pronunciation of huge is [hʊudʒ] and not [çuːdʒ].
g. In some conservative accents in Scotland, Ireland, the southern United States, and New England, the
digraph ⟨wh⟩ in words like which and whine represents a voiceless w sound [ʍ], a
voiceless labiovelar
fricative
[13][14][15]
or
approximant
,
[16]
which contrasts with the voiced w of witch and wine. In most
dialects, this sound is lost, and is pronounced as a voiced w (the
wine–whine merger
). Phonemically
this sound may be analysed as a consonant cluster /hw/, rather than as a separate phoneme */ʍ/, so
which and whine are transcribed phonemically as /hwɪtʃ/ and /hwaɪn/. This does not mean that such
speakers actually pronounce [h] followed by [w]: this phonemic transcription /hw/ is simply a
convenient way of representing a single sound [ʍ] when such dialects are not analysed as having an
extra phoneme.
[12]
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