) in the variables are shown; the effects of decreases in the variables on aggregate output would be
586
PA R T V I I
Monetary Theory
CHANGES IN NET EXPORTS (
NX
)
A rise in net exports adds directly to aggregate
demand and raises the aggregate demand function, increasing aggregate output. A
fall directly reduces aggregate demand, lowers the aggregate demand function, and
causes aggregate output to fall. Therefore,
aggregate output is positively related
to net exports
NX.
SIZE OF THE EFFECTS FROM THE FIVE FACTORS
The aggregate demand function
in the Keynesian cross diagrams shifts vertically by the full amount of the change
in
a, I, G,
or
NX,
resulting in a multiple effect on aggregate output through the
effects of the expenditure multiplier, 1/(1
+
mpc
). A change in taxes has
a smaller effect on aggregate output because consumer expenditure changes
only by
mpc
times the change in taxes (
+
mpc
- ,
T
), which in the case of
mpc
*
0.5 means that aggregate demand shifts vertically by only half of the
change in taxes.
If there is a change in one of these autonomous factors that is offset by a change
in another (say,
I
rises by $100 billion, but
a, G,
or
NX
falls by $100 billion or
T
rises
by $200 billion when
mpc
*
0.5), the aggregate demand function will remain in
the same position, and aggregate output will remain unchanged.
5
T H E
I S L M
M O D E L
So far our analysis has excluded monetary policy. We now include money and inter-
est rates in the Keynesian framework to develop the more intricate
ISLM
model of how
aggregate output is determined, in which monetary policy plays an important role.
Why another complex model? The
ISLM
model is versatile and allows us to understand
economic phenomena that cannot be analyzed with the simpler Keynesian cross
framework used earlier. The
ISLM
model will help you understand how monetary pol-
icy affects economic activity and interacts with fiscal policy (changes in government
5
These results can be derived algebraically as follows. Substituting the consumption function allowing
for taxes (Equation 6) into the aggregate demand function (Equation 1), we have
Y
ad
*
a
+
mpc
-
T
.
mpc
-
Y
.
I
.
G
.
NX
If we assume that taxes
T
are unrelated to income, we can define autonomous spending in the aggre-
gate demand function to be
A
*
a
+
mpc
-
T
.
I
.
G
.
NX
The expenditure equation can be rewritten as
Y
ad
*
A
.
mpc
-
Y
In equilibrium, aggregate demand equals aggregate output,
Y
*
A
.
mpc
-
Y
which can be solved for
Y.
The resulting equation,
is the same equation that links autonomous spending and aggregate output in the text (Equation 5), but it
now allows for additional components of autonomous spending in
A.
We see that any increase in
autonomous expenditure leads to a multiple increase in output. Thus any component of autonomous
spending that enters
A
with a positive sign (
a
,
I
,
G
, and
NX
) will have a positive relationship with output,
and any component with a negative sign (
+
mpc
-
T
) will have a negative relationship with output. This
algebraic analysis also shows us that any rise in a component of
A
that is offset by a movement in another
component of
A
, leaving
A
unchanged, will also leave output unchanged.
Y
=
1
1
-
mpc
*
A
spending and taxes) to produce a certain level of aggregate output; how the level of
interest rates is affected by changes in investment spending as well as by changes in
monetary and fiscal policy; how best to conduct monetary policy; and how the
ISLM
model generates the aggregate demand curve, an essential building block for the
aggregate supply and demand analysis used in Chapter 24 and thereafter.
Like our simplified Keynesian model, the full
ISLM
model examines an equi-
librium in which aggregate output produced equals aggregate demand, and since
it assumes a fixed price level, real and nominal quantities are the same. The first
step in constructing the
ISLM
model is to examine the effect of interest rates on
planned investment spending and hence on aggregate demand. Next we use a
Keynesian cross diagram to see how the interest rate affects the equilibrium level
of aggregate output. The resulting relationship between equilibrium aggregate out-
put and the interest rate is known as the
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: