116
understanding the meaning of certain words that occur in the extract such as
we
and
outside
. According to Goodwin and Duranti (1992: 3), „the focal event cannot be
properly understood…unless one looks beyond the event itself to other phenomena
(for example cultural setting, speech situation, shared background assumptions)
within which the event is embedded.‟ Participant knowledge of contextual features
such as the cultural setting, speech situation and shared background assumptions is
essential in assigning meaning to referents like
we
and
outside
(it is also helpful if
this knowledge extends to the researcher). Both
we
and
outside
refer to the
daughter‟s place of work;
we
referring to her membership of the staff of the
organization and
outside
referring to the location of the workplace, perhaps in
contrast to the „inside‟ context of the family home.
The notion of context is one which has proven difficult to grasp (see Lyons, 1981;
Levinson, 1983; Cook, 1990; Duranti and Goodwin, 1992; Janney, 2002). Ochs
(1979: 1) claims that „the scope of context is difficult to define…one must consider
the social and psychological world in which the language user operates at any given
time‟ (see also Cutting, 2008). Janney (2002: 457) notes that „in some ways…we are
still grappling with the difficulty of defining what the study of context is the study
of
, although Goodwin and Duranti (1992: 2) note that this is „not a situation that
necessarily requires a remedy.‟ In this study, context will be regarded as including
„minimally, language users‟ beliefs and assumptions about temporal, spatial and
social settings; prior, on-going and future actions (verbal and non-verbal), and the
state of knowledge and attentiveness of those participating in the
social interaction in
hand‟ (Ochs, 1979: 5). However, despite difficulty in determining exactly what
context
is
, what is accepted is that context is constructed by factors both „outside‟
and „inside‟ the text or utterance.
Context „inside‟ text is referred to as co-text, that is, grammatical and lexical
cohesion within texts. Janney (2002: 458-459) maintains that „in any stretch of
discourse, interpretations of utterances depend on information provided by earlier
utterances in the sequence and, at the same time, constitute information necessary
for interpreting later utterances in it.‟ Co-textual references are used to refer
backwards and forwards in a text but the contextual information required to
understand them is already present; the interlocutors have no need to move „outside‟
117
the utterance in order to attribute meaning. In contrast, the context „outside‟ the text
can be subdivided into
situational context
and
background knowledge context
.
Goodwin and Duranti (1992: 6) maintain that situational context is derived from the
„setting‟, „the social and special framework within which encounters are situated.‟
Cutting (2008: 5) demonstrates how situational context is „the immediate physical
co-presence, the situation where the interaction is taking place at the moment of
speaking‟ by using the analogy of two people speaking on the phone. She observes
that speakers on the phone often use gesture while speaking, however, these gestures
are in a sense redundant as they do not add meaning to the words because the
interlocutors are not engaged in face-to-face interaction. Background knowledge
context can be either
cultural
, „knowledge that people carry with them in their minds
about areas of life‟ (Cutting, 2008: 6) or
interpersonal
, „specific and possibly private
knowledge about the history of the speakers themselves‟ (
ibid
.). This chapter (and
Chapter 6) is concerned with how the „cooperative exploitation‟ (Green, 1989: 47) of
this shared situational, cultural and interpersonal knowledge by family members
emerges in the families‟ reference systems.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: