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The speaker profiles for both SettCorp and TravCorp also reveal differences in
educational attainment in the settled and Traveller family which may account for the
variation between the two families‟ pragmatic systems. In SettCorp, three of the
children are students at third level and one is a student at second level. Although
there are no educational qualifications recorded for the children in TravCorp, in the
Traveller community as a whole, two-thirds of all school leavers are educated to, at
most, Primary level (Central Statistics Office, 2004). In addition to this, a study into
the educational background of Travellers in Galway revealed that no Traveller had a
third level degree, in contrast with a rate of 26% in the settled population (Irwin,
2006). Therefore, it is possible that hedges such as
I think
have been acquired by the
members of the settled family in the educational sphere, and their usage has then
been invoked in the family setting, something that may not occur in the Traveller
family due to the differing levels of educational experience. In a cross-cultural
comparison of the use of discourse markers in pedagogic settings, Fung and Carter
(2007), using a pedagogic sub-corpus from CANCODE and a corpus of interactive
classroom discourse of secondary pupils in Hong Kong, reveal extremely high
instances of
I think
in the student corpus, in fact the marker is comparatively more
frequent in the Hong Kong corpus than in the CANCODE sub-corpus. They claim
that „
I think
is used very heavily to mark both speaker‟s thoughts and to express
attitude, a process that has become automatic and highly routinised to the extent that
pragmatic fossilisation is evidenced‟ (p. 431). This presence in a pedagogic context
may suggest that the marker was acquired there and is viewed by students as an
appropriate marker for use in this discourse sphere.
If, as hypothesised here, hedges such
I think
are acquired
in the educational sphere, it
could be claimed that the Traveller family have, perhaps, rejected these hedges due
to a past Traveller education policy that viewed education as a matter of settlement,
a way of taking the Traveller out of the child (Pavee Point, 2009). Huspek (1989),
seeking to account for instances of linguistic variability and power, analyses
occurrences of
you know
/
I think
in American industrial workers‟ speech, a group he
delineates as socially disadvantaged due to their occupation and educational
qualifications. He notes that among the workers, the ratio of occurrence of
you know
to
I think
is 8:1. He also observes „strong sentiments against the use of the latter
sequence [
I think
] unless its semantic force is diminished, if not entirely negated, or
231
at least altered in significant respects‟ (p. 670). Accordingly, all instances of
I think
(except one) are used in conjunction with modals and the markers
you know
and
I
don’t know
by the workers. This, he claims, allows the workers to express individual
opinions while showing consideration for the group, necessary because in the
workplace it is the group that wields the most power in the form of union activity
and so on. Therefore, in order to oppose the dominant educational ideology, the
Travellers as a group may have created what Huspek terms „verbal resistance
stratagems‟ (p. 681) that operate to challenge disadvantage.
Similarly, Youmans (2001), in a study the English speech of Chicano barrio
residents and what she terms „Anglo‟ visitors to this community, attempts to
elucidate the connection between language use and values developed in conjunction
with community marginality. She claims that Chicanos use
I think
primarily to
signal
evidentiality, whereas the dominant, white, middle classes use the marker to soften
advice or suggestion, a function not evident in the Chicano data. Youmans claims
that Chicanos „may see Anglos‟ (probably unconscious) use of evidentials for non-
evidential functions as „hypocritical‟‟ (p. 62). This view of middle class language
use originates, she maintains, in the beliefs and attitudes prevalent in Chicano
culture such as close identification with family, community and ethnic grouping,
beliefs also strongly established in the Traveller Community. Youmans equates the
Anglo use of
I think
with the language required for success in wider society. She
contends that the Chicano refusal to match the language norms of the dominant class
perpetuates their position as a non-powerful, disadvantaged group in American
society. Akin to the Chicanos, the Traveller Community‟s „failure‟ to employ
linguistic forms and functions such as the use of
I think
for hedging purposes may
have a direct influence on their continuing marginalisation in modern-day Ireland.
8.2.3
Just
According to Aijmer (2002: 158), the pragmatic marker
just
has procedural meaning
in that it functions as a signal to the hearer to interpret the speaker‟s utterance as an
expression of an attitude. Therefore,
just
, like many other pragmatic markers, is
rarely semantically neutral in that there is an element of evaluation attached to its
use. Lee (1987) maintains that
just
belongs to Halliday‟s
interpersonal component
,
232
denoting that instead of being concerned with the structure or grammar of the
propositional meaning, the marker orientates the expression of propositional
meaning towards the roles and attitudes of the conversational participants. As Table
8.5 demonstrates,
just
is a frequent element in many spoken corpora:
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