221
1991; Anderson, 2001). However, these characteristics have lead to a series of
contradictory reports into the function of
like
in discourse. In one of the most
comprehensive
studies of its kind, Schourup (1985)
outlines five uses of
like
:
(i)
As an approximator
I’m
like
six feet tall.
(ii)
As a marker of reported
speech and thought
5
… and she’s
like
“Get outta here” you know.
(iii)
After questions to indicate a discrepancy between a question asked by the
speaker and the question s/he thanks
is ideally more appropriate
D’you know what I mean
like
?
(iv)
Equivalent to
for example
6
I know but it wouldn’t be any point if someone wanted to be,
like
a doctor
and they got into a nursery place.
(v)
As
a filler
… but I found
like
that helped me a lot.
Schourup groups these uses under the heading „evincives‟ which, he maintains,
„allow the speaker to call attention to current thought in the private world...without
placing details of the speaker‟s thoughts in the shared world‟ (p. 35-36). This notion
of evincives has been criticised by Miller and Weinert (1995) who claim that this is
too general a term, and that
aha
or
well
can also function as evincives though
playing different roles to
like
(p. 369). They further question Schourup‟s individual
functions of
like
, rejecting, for example, his hypothesis that it is a filler in favour of
the hypothesis that it is a discourse organiser. In addition, Anderson (1998), writing
from a relevance theory perspective, questions Schourup‟s decision to equate three
of the uses of
like
to
approximately
,
say
and
for example
, which, she claims, is
„redundant‟ and „inaccurate‟ (p. 149). It may be of use to note here that
disagreements between these individual researchers may arise precisely because of
the particular characteristics of pragmatic markers. For example, Schourup uses data
taken from radio talk shows and informal conversations between friends. In contrast,
5
See also Romaine and Lange (1991).
6
Anderson (1998) labels this function
Suggesting an Alternative
and the example used here is taken
from her paper.
222
Miller and Weinert use data taken from task-related dialogue and spontaneous
conversation whereas Anderson‟s analysis is based on data taken from the Bergen
Corpus of London Teenage English (COLT).
7
Therefore, these three studies
represent data taken from three different speech contexts. In addition, three different
cultures are represented – American (Schourup), Scottish (Miller and Weinert) and
English (Anderson). Furthermore, age difference also has a role to play – in Miller
and Weinert, for example, the speakers in the task-related dialogues are younger
than those in the spontaneous conversation. Given that such disparity exists between
the data in these studies, perhaps it should come as no surprise that disparity exists
between the researchers‟ determinations of the functions of
like
in discourse given
that pragmatic markers appear to be heavily influenced by these macro- and micro-
social factors.
Miller and Weinert (1995), examining
like
in spontaneous conversation, argue that
the function of this marker and its syntactic positioning are interconnected. They
claim that clause-initial
like
appears to function as a non-contrastive, non-
introducing focuser, equivalent to Schourup‟s (1985) assertion that, in particular
cases,
like
is used in the same way as
for example
. On the other hand, relevant to this
study, clause-final
like
mitigates the process of clarifying misunderstandings by
countering potential inferences, objections or doubts, thereby performing a hedging
function. When the use of
like
as a verb,
I
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