Half the crime in the city [of Boston]: Glenn Pierce et al., “The character of police work:
strategic and tactical implications,” Center for Applied Social Research Northeastern University,
November 1988. Although the study authors weren’t aware that their data supported the Law of
Crime Concentration, Weisburd put the pieces together when he looked at their conclusions.
Weisburd map of Seattle crime patterns:
See Figure 2 in David Weisburd et al., “Understanding and Controlling Hot Spots of Crime: The
Importance of Formal and Informal Social Controls,” Prevention Science 15, no. 1 (2014): 31–
43, doi:10.1007/s11121-012-0351-9. The map shows crime over the period from 1989 to 2004.
For more on Weisburd’s research on crime and place, see David Weisburd et al., The
Criminology of Place: Street Segments and Our Understanding of the Crime Problem (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2012), and David Weisburd et al., Place Matters: Criminology for the
Twenty-First Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016).
Not long after I met Weisburd in 2018, he arranged for me to spend a day with a colleague of his,
Claire White. The two of them have been running a multimillion-dollar “hot spot” research
project in Baltimore since 2012—studying 450 street segments all over the city. “It’s becoming
well established that crime is highly concentrated,” White explained. “[Weisburd] has shown us
that across numerous cities with different types of data. The big question is why? What is it
about these places that have such a high concentration of crime?”
White and Weisburd hired forty student interviewers. They send them out every day to document
the condition of those 450 segments, gathering as much information as they can on their
residents. “We ask about what we call collective efficacy, willingness to intervene,” White said.
“If there’s kids climbing on a parked car, how willing are your neighbors to say something? If
the local fire station was going to be shut down, how willing are your neighbors to do something
about it? Kind of this willingness to be involved as well as trusting. Do you trust your neighbors?
Do you share the same values as your neighbors?…We have questions about the police: Do you
think the police treat you fairly? Do you think the officers treat people with respect?”
For comparison purposes, some of those street segments are “cold” spots, defined as blocks with
fewer than four police calls a year. A hot spot is anything with more than eighteen police calls a
year. Keep in mind that Baltimore is an eighteenth-century city—the blocks are really short. So
that’s a minimum of eighteen police calls along a street segment that you could walk in less than
a minute. White said that some of the streets in the study had over six hundred calls for service in
one year. That’s what Weisburd means by the Law of Crime Concentration. Most streets have
none. A small number of streets are home to virtually all the crime in the area.
White and I began our tour in West Baltimore, not far from the city’s downtown.
“It’s notorious for being one of the pretty high crime areas. It’s where Freddie Gray was arrested
and where the riots took place,” she said, referring to the 2015 case of a young African American
who died in police custody, under suspicious circumstances, leading to angry protests. “If you’ve
seen The Wire, they always talk about West Baltimore.” The area was typical of an older
northeastern city: narrow streets, red-brick townhouses. Some blocks had been gentrified, others
not. “There’s definitely many areas where you’ll be walking and you feel you’re in a nice
neighborhood, right? You feel comfortable,” White said, as she drove through the heart of the
neighborhood. “Then you turn the corner and you’re in a street that’s all boarded up. It’s a ghost
town. You wonder if anyone even lives on the street.”
She took me to the first of the street segments being studied and parked there. She wanted me to
guess whether it was a hot spot or a cold spot. On the corner was an exquisite nineteenth-century
church, and behind it a small park. The block had elegant European proportions. The sun was
shining. I said I thought it must be a cold spot. She shook her head. “This is a violent street.”
She drove on.
Sometimes a street’s identity was obvious: a bedraggled block with a bar at one end and Slick
Rick’s Bail Bonds at the other was exactly as it looked—a double hot spot, bad for both crime
and drugs. “There’s ones where it’s very clear, right?” White asked me. “You get out of the car
and the people on the street start shouting out their codes for a police officer coming.” She
started laughing. “I love going out with the field researchers when they’re like, ‘That’s the code
for us being on the street.’” Once, in broad daylight, White’s field workers found themselves in
the middle of a gun battle; there was little ambiguity about that segment.
But some bedraggled streets were perfectly fine. Once, in the midst of a particularly dismal
stretch, we came across a little oasis: two consecutive street segments of manicured lawns and
freshly painted houses. One large abandoned building had a sign posted in its window, a
reference to John 14: 2, 3: “In my father’s house there are many rooms.” Was a glimpse of irony
evidence of function or dysfunction?
I asked White to explain what tipped a street segment one way or the other. Sometimes she
could. Usually she couldn’t. “That’s exactly it,” she said. “The environment doesn’t always
speak to what’s going on. In our pilot study, one of the streets we selected was a violent hot spot.
The police officer and clinician were like, ‘No way is this a violent hot spot.’ All the homes are
well kept. It’s this beautiful street. I went and checked to make sure. I thought maybe there was
something wrong with our data. I have this officer saying no way is this a violent hot spot, and it
is. You can’t always tell.”
The lesson of an afternoon driving around Baltimore with Claire White was that it is really easy
to make mistakes about strangers. Baltimore is a city where the homicide rate is many times the
national average. The simplest thing in the world is to look at the abandoned buildings and the
poverty and the drug dealers calling out their codes, then write off those areas and everyone in
them. But the point of the Law of Crime Concentration is that most of the streets in “those areas”
are perfectly fine. The hot spot is a spot, not a region. “We focus on all the bad people,” White
said of Baltimore’s reputation, “but in reality there’s mostly good people.” Our ignorance of the
unfamiliar is what fuels our fear.
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