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Exploring advertising in higher education: an empirical analysis in
North America, Europe, and Japan
Antigoni Papadimitriou
a
*
and Gerardo Blanco Ramírez
b
a
Management and Leadership Program, Hellenic College, Brookline, MA, USA;
b
Department of
Leadership in Education, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, USA
(Received 18 November 2014; accepted 11 December 2014)
This empirical study explores higher education advertising campaigns displayed in
five world cities: Boston, New York, Oslo, Tokyo, and Toronto. The study follows a
mixed-methods research design relying on content analysis and multimodal semiotic
analysis and employs a conceptual framework based on the knowledge triangle of
education, research, and innovation. The study reveals that education is overwhelm-
ingly the strongest element emphasized across the five cities and that students
constitute the most salient and central element in the majority of the advertisements.
Keywords: advertising; competition; knowledge triangle; marketing; mixed methods;
visual methods
Background and purpose
The concepts of marketing and advertising have received increasing attention from
scholars interested in issues of institutional identity, managerialism, and student
consumer cultures in the context of higher education (Hartley & Morphew,
2008
;
Temple & Shattock,
2007
). However, thus far the emphasis on studying advertising in
higher education has followed a national or regional approach, with studies focusing on
the United States (Saichaie & Morphew,
2014
), Canada (Bélanger, Bali, & Longden,
2014
; Metcalfe,
2012
), Europe (Bennett & Ali-Choudhury,
2009
; D’Andrea, Stensaker,
& Allison,
2007
; Huisman,
2007
), East Asia (Ng,
2014
) and the Middle East (Wilkins
& Huisman,
2014
). The purpose of this study was to analyze, from a comparative stand-
point, messages and discourses embedded in campaigns for institutions of higher educa-
tion located in five world cities: Boston, New York, Oslo, Tokyo, and Toronto. We
carry out this analysis using a mixed-methods design and a conceptual framework that
derives from the knowledge triangle areas (education, research, and innovation), along
with the principles of visual analysis.
The research questions for the study are: (1) What are the main messages present in
the university marketing campaigns displayed in the five different cities? (2) What is the
most salient visual element in each of the advertisements? (3) What similarities and dif-
ferences can be identified across different cities in relation to the messages and the
visual elements displayed?
*Corresponding author. Email:
apapadimitriou@hchc.edu
© 2015 European Higher Education Society
Tertiary Education and Management, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13583883.2014.999702
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Literature review
Looking at the major scholarly journals in higher education, it is noticeable that both
empirical and conceptual articles on the topic of higher education marketing and adver-
tising are few and recent. Notwithstanding, Waeraas and Solbakk (
2009
) noted that the
sub-field of marketing for higher education has engaged with the topic substantially.
There have, for example, been occasional books (Gibbs & Knapp,
2002
; Lowrie &
Hemsley-Brown,
2013
; Maringe & Gibbs,
2009
) and special issues of the Journal of
Marketing for Higher Education.
View books, pamphlets, and websites
Several studies have focused on the identities that higher education institutions construct
for themselves. In the United States, Hartley and Morphew (
2008
) utilized content anal-
ysis in order to study the messages present in view books, or catalogs, stemming from
48 different higher education institutions. Following a similar approach, but engaging
with a different medium, Saichaie and Morphew (
2014
) analyzed 12 institutional
websites. Saichaie and Morphew noted a striking similarity in the messages that these
websites projected. In their analysis, they identified idealized representations of colle-
giate experiences that emphasize private benefits of higher education. Urciuoli (
2003
)
analyzed advertising pamphlets for liberal arts colleges, suggesting that, through their
representations, liberal arts colleges not only project excellence and diversity, but also
reinforce excellence and diversity as desirable values. The existing literature on the topic
of advertising in higher education suggests that advertising is increasingly multimodal,
combining printed and electronic, textual and visual information to convey messages
(Ng,
2014
).
The brand paradox
In addition to the studies aimed at exploring marketing in higher education from the
perspective of college choice, there have been several studies aimed at exploring the
messages conveyed in advertising campaigns (e.g. Farber & Holm,
2005
). After analyz-
ing numerous university advertisements aired during televised football games, Clayton,
Cavanagh, and Hettche (
2012
) concluded that ‘a sea of sameness’ (p. 182) characterizes
the ways universities portray themselves. This conclusion is paradoxical given that, as
the previous discussion of market segmentation suggests, one might expect advertising
campaigns to make institutions appear different from their competitors, not similar.
One of the challenges implicit in the process of advertising institutions of higher
education is that, conventionally, brands are supposed to capture the essence of a prod-
uct. According to Waeras and Solbakk (
2009
), universities may simply be too complex
to reduce to a single brand. Branding is itself a paradoxical process and encourages
university leaders to embrace the contradictions and multiplicity of meanings that
universities encapsulate, rather than seeking a uniform, all-encompassing institutional
brand (Lowrie,
2007
).
Global perspectives on higher education marketing
It is possible to identify studies about higher education marketing in many countries: in
the United States (Dholakia & Acciardo,
2014
; Hartley & Morphew,
2008
; Saichaie &
2
A. Papadimitriou and G. Blanco Ramírez
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Morphew,
2014
), in Canada (Belanger, Bali, & Longden,
2014
) and several in Europe
(Bennett & Ali-Choudhury,
2009
; D’Andrea et al.,
2007
; Huisman,
2007
). One can also
find studies conducted in Singapore (Ng,
2014
; Sidhu,
2009
), Malaysia (Idris &
Whitfield,
2014
) and the United Arab Emirates (Wilkins & Huisman,
2014
). To the best
of our knowledge, however, there have not been efforts to explore advertising at a
regional level or to compare different national systems. In addition, the relationships
between marketing communication and higher education processes and outcomes (i.e.
education, research, and innovation) have not been sufficiently analyzed.
Conceptual framework
To the extent that higher education becomes a global field (Marginson,
2011
),
institutions of higher education compete with each other in order to take a position in
the system. Many resources are available to higher education institutions for this
purpose. However, given that students have been construed as customers or consumers,
advertising strategies become increasingly important for global competition (Maringe &
Gibbs,
2009
). In order to make sense of advertising campaigns, we argue that the
content and form of marketing need to receive attention. As a result, we propose a
conceptual framework that integrates open systems theory and knowledge triangle areas
to analyze the content and communicative strategies displayed in advertisements for
higher education institutions.
Open systems
In today’s competitive climate, universities worldwide need to adapt because the world
around them is changing. This study deals with organizations and their environmental
contexts. Scott (
1981
) stressed that ‘organizations are not closed systems, sealed [off
from] their environments, but open to and dependent on flows of personnel and
resources from outside their own systems’ (p. 22). Several scholars have discussed ele-
ments of open systems theory as it relates to higher education institutions. Enders
(
2004
) characterized universities, for example, as ‘multi-purpose or multi-product’
(p. 362) organizations, and stated ‘universities are institutions that, in all societies, have
performed basic functions which result from the particular combination of cultural and
ideological, social and economic, educational and scientific roles that have been
assigned to them’ (p. 362). Enders’ statement brings to mind what Kerr (
2001
) observed
about US universities, which are ‘so many things to so many different people that it
must, of necessity, be partially at war with itself’ (p. 7). In our study, we consider
universities as open system organizations that cannot be understood in isolation from
the environmental conditions within which they operate.
The knowledge triangle
In the knowledge economy, the role of the university is significant. Universities are the
object of public and private investment, and society has placed great expectations upon
them (Kerr,
1983
). Today’s universities are increasingly being called upon to engage
with economic development; they are required to live in the market (Clark,
1995
), to be
innovative (van Vught,
1999
), and to be entrepreneurial (Clark,
1998
). Hence, universi-
ties are required to build relationships with their stakeholders in several ways. The
European Commission observed that, ‘Europe much strengthens the three poles of its
Tertiary Education and Management
3
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knowledge triangle: education, research, and innovation. Universities are essential in all
three’ (EC,
2005
, p. 152).
This study explores whether the knowledge triangle’s areas appear in our data,
consisting of pictures we collected (captured) in five cities, and if the messages that
derived from those pictures are aligned with those areas. Thus, our ambition was to
begin identifying to what extent the knowledge triangle logic can be applicable to
higher education advertisements.
Visual-multimodal semiotics
Kress (
2010
) and Kress and van Leewen (
2006
) established a method for visual
analysis; they argue that visual communication can rely on either narrative or concep-
tual processes and that analysis of images is to be conducted relying on saliency and
composition. Narrative images show an action that takes place and is depicted by direc-
tionality or vectors. Conversely, conceptual images rely on symbolic relations, part–
whole connections, or classification strategies. In addition, Kress and van Leewen
(
2006
) call for attention to saliency and composition. The most salient object in an
image takes the largest space and captures viewers’ eyes (Kress & van Leewen,
2006
).
Composition is to be analyzed in terms of centers and margins (Kress & van
Leewen,
2006
). When integrating marketing into the higher education sector, we believe
that researchers need to take into consideration these concepts (saliency and centrality in
both narrative and conceptual images). Therefore, we adapted Kress and van Leewen’s
(
2006
) methodology for our analysis: we focused on saliency, the largest object in the
composition and where one’s eyes go first, and centrality, the elements at the center of
the image, for our analysis.
Research design, methods, and data
In order to answer the research questions of this study, we employed a mixed-methods
design that relies on both textual and visual analysis. Qualitative and quantitative data
analytical procedures were utilized sequentially. The text from the advertisements was
transcribed; then, we used thematic analysis (Boyatzis,
1998
) to attribute different
themes to one or more of the three elements of the knowledge triangle. Once the whole
text was coded in this way, the relative weight of each area was quantified. Multimodal
analysis (Kress,
2010
; Kress & van Leeuwen,
2006
) was employed qualitatively. The
final quantitative analysis was only possible after coding themes had been determined in
the qualitative data analyses.
Advertisements sampled
With the purpose of identifying relevant university advertisements, both authors con-
ducted observations in public spaces, for example, riding on the different routes of the
public transportation system in the different cities included in the sample. Photography
was the primary means of collecting data. Whenever we encountered an advertisement
deemed relevant, that is, an advertisement of an institution of higher education, we
would take a photograph (n ≈ 90). After assessing carefully and translating, we elimi-
nated some repeated information or advertisements that were not relevant; the actual
data for the final analysis were 59 pictures.
4
A. Papadimitriou and G. Blanco Ramírez
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Multi-stage qualitative and quantitative approach
Coding categories and operationalization
Stage 1: focusing of knowledge triangle areas. The text from the photographs was tran-
scribed and, when necessary, translated into English. Through collaborative comparison,
we discussed our interpretations of the different elements and identified themes in the
text. The coding categories were based on the knowledge triangle areas. Combinations
of categories were also distinguished in this study: education and research, education
and innovation, research and innovation, as well as education, research and innovation.
Stage 2: focusing on communicative areas. We adapted Kress and van Leewen’s
(
2006
) methodology for this second stage of our analysis. In order to code each of the
photographs, we used narrative or conceptual interpretations. Then, we focused on cen-
trality, that is, what element is at the center of each picture, and on saliency, that is,
what is the most salient element in both communicative processes.
Stage 3: interconnection between marketing and higher education. In order to con-
nect the visual analysis with the knowledge triangle areas, we focused only on the most
salient element, and the element at the center of each of the pictures. For each of these
elements, which sometimes coincided, we asked whether they matched the classification
explained in Stage 1. This level of analysis focused on patterns and trends; further, the
interconnection between marketing and higher education.
Stage 4: comparative across cities. In this final stage, we identified trends and
patterns within and across the five cities.
The first two stages 1 and 2 employed qualitative analysis, while both stages 3 and
4 were quantitative.
Trustworthiness and limitations
Both researchers coded all of the photographs. Having established the codebook and
operational guidelines, reliability was informally tested for all of the pictures. A second
round of analysis, picture by picture, involved both researchers. There was a large
degree of agreement from the beginning. Total agreement was achieved after further dis-
cussion of the meaning of the codes. We deemed it unnecessary to change the categories
or instructions substantially, as the initial level of agreement was high enough. We also
sought feedback from colleagues in Norway and Japan.
Results
The knowledge triangle areas
Education
Education was used as an a priori or prefigured category (Patton,
1980
); we assigned
thematic information, taken from the advertisement texts, into this category. The content
placed in this category emphasized the different academic programs that the institutions
we analyzed offered, the institution’s academic staff and the career preparation that they
offer to prospective students. As a result of this diversity of topics, we developed smal-
ler sub-categories. Examples under the education category included the following: ‘Your
next degree is closer than you think: Associate’s Master’s Bachelor’s’; ‘Hands-on train-
ing, job placement assistance’; ‘Pharmacy technology, Massage Therapy, Business
Administration, Network Administration & Security.’
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5
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The category education was, by far, the most common identified in the text of the
advertisements analyzed. This category was also the most frequent one in the visual
analysis we conducted, which was based on the most central and the most salient
elements in the advertisements (cf. Kress & van Leewen,
2006
). In the rest of this
section, we discuss the sub-categories we identified.
Students. Students were the most evident sign of the preeminence of education in the
text and visual analysis of advertisements. Students were the most salient element por-
trayed in the vast majority of the advertisements analyzed. This was the case in all
five cities studied. Realistic and stylized portrayals of students were a recurrent visual
theme displayed in the advertisements. In addition, the text reinforced the centrality
and saliency of students. In Boston, one advertisement read: ‘Where your success
matters.’ In addition, quotes from students were displayed in the advertisements, along
with some of their personal information. In Tokyo, a student is quoted as follows:
‘I’m getting my future for real.’ In Toronto, a student is quoted and then a short biog-
raphy indicates that he ‘also volunteers as a minor league hockey coach.’ In Boston,
students were not only portrayed but also their names and their expected graduation
year. In Oslo, the centrality of students was evident visually, while their personal
information was kept confidential.
A different way that students are part of the advertisement campaign was through
the communicative strategy of the advertisements. In most of the advertisements, view-
ers are treated as prospective students. For example, in New York, an advertisement
reads: ‘Our degrees are transferable, so why limit yourself?’ In Tokyo, an advertisement
compels readers: ‘Your future has not been colored yet.’ In Oslo, an institution asks
readers, construed as prospective students: ‘Did you know you can live off creativity?’
In Toronto, a poster claims: ‘We are ready to begin when you are.’
Career preparation. Many of the advertisements we analyzed emphasized career prepa-
ration and career placement. In Tokyo, one university advertisement suggests: ‘100%
success rate for employment, with intimate education system.’ In Boston, an institution
advertises a slightly lower success rate: ‘With a 99% job placement rate, college gradu-
ates of the programs in Eye Health Technology are one of a kind.’ In New York, two
different advertisements read: ‘Medical careers start here!’ and ‘Lifetime job placement
assistance.’ In Toronto, another advertisement quotes a graduate: ‘My experience at the
School of Continuing Studies put my career two years ahead.’ In Oslo, the discussion
of career preparation is more conceptual. There, one set of advertisements depicts a
male and a female student. At the center of the female image, a legend reads: ‘Here is
the Prime Minister.’ At the center of the male student, a legend reads: ‘Here is the
Secretary of State.’ In summary, through statistical information on job placement, or
through claims about successful careers, the advertisements analyzed tie together
education with careers.
Academic offer. Many of the advertisements analyzed, which we subsequently assigned
to the education category, listed the different programs offered at the institution. In New
York, for example, one advertisement read: ‘Associate and Bachelor Degrees: Account-
ing, Information Sciences, Business Administration, Medical Assisting, Health Informa-
tion Technology.’ In Oslo, another advertisement suggested: ‘Take a bachelor in
Graphic Design, Interior Design, Journalism, Creative Marketing Communications.’ The
advertisement pictures collected in Boston, New York, and Oslo were more likely to list
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the academic programs offered at the institution. Conversely, in Tokyo and Toronto, the
advertisements featured only one academic program at a time.
Academic staff. A different set of messages coded under the category of education
involved claims about the institution’s academic staff. In Toronto, for instance, the
following quote from an academic staff member is included in the advertisement: ‘I love
teaching because it’s a way of giving back.’ In Tokyo, another advertisement places the
professor center stage, but through the voice of students: ‘What is a Developmental
Disorder? Professor, Please teach us!’ In New York, an advertisement emphasizes the
practical experience of a particular academic staff member: ‘Before he taught criminal
justice at [institution’s name], he taught at the NY Police Academy. Talk about real
world experience.’
In addition to the text in the advertisements, academic staff members (mostly white
men) were the second most frequent element with the highest visual saliency – students
(both male and female) were the most frequent one. This visual saliency of academic
staff in the advertisements was evident. It is striking that in Boston, New York, Tokyo,
and Toronto all of the academic staff portrayed were male, and nearly all were white.
Academic staff members were not visually represented in Oslo. Among the advertise-
ments from North America – Boston, New York, and Toronto – only one advertisement,
displayed in New York, depicted a black individual in the role of a professor.
Global scope. An additional element that deserves attention under the education
category involves a global or international orientation. In New York, for example, an
advertisement reads: ‘Urban focus, global reach.’ Another advertisement, also in New
York, states: ‘International students welcome!’ In Tokyo, an advertisement suggests: ‘Be
productive when you study abroad.’ In Toronto, an institution advertises its online
education programs through a global focus: ‘Wherever you find yourself in the world,
[institution’s name] can go there with you.’ In Boston, a university advertisement, strate-
gically placed at the airport stop of the public transportation system, reads: ‘Challenge
convention. Change our world.’ Visually, this last advertisement is unique because it
does not portray students, academic staff, or even the institution. It depicts a world map
with the legend ‘Change’ across the map.
Research
After carefully analyzing the text from the advertisements, we decided that no portion
of the text was attributable to the category research. Nevertheless, two advertisements,
one in Boston and one in Toronto, included visual references to research. In Boston, a
young man – possibly a student – is depicted in an advertisement wearing a white
laboratory coat, with rubber gloves and protective goggles. He is portrayed holding and
observing a sample. The caption reads: ‘Inquisitive. Curious to learn more?’ Addition-
ally, a text with small letters provided information about biology studies. In Toronto, a
cartoon-like depiction of a female student seems to jump out of a glass beaker, which is
heated with a Bunsen burner. The caption reads, ‘We offer degrees in “I never looked at
it that way.”’ In these two instances, while the images make clear references to research,
the text emphasizes education. It is noteworthy that, while discussions about quality and
institutional reputation have shifted their emphasis toward research, advertisements
highlight the educational mission of higher education institutions almost exclusively.
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Innovation
Innovation was referred to, both in text and visually, albeit less frequently than
education. In most instances, innovation was tied to education or presented as a result
of the education provided at a given institution. In Boston, one of the advertisements
encourages viewers to ‘challenge convention.’ Another advertisement, again in Boston,
reads ‘Novel. You’re an original and we value your perspective.’ Yet another advertise-
ment reads: ‘Imagine new possibilities and never settle for the status quo.’ In a similar
vein, in Toronto, two advertisements for the same institution use the following punch
line: ‘Challenge the way you think.’ In Tokyo, an advertisement announces: ‘We just
signed a contract with the National Museum of Emerging Science and Innovation in
order to contribute to academic development of science and technology.’
Another connotation of innovation identified in the pictures we analyzed, connects
innovation to pressing social issues. For instance, in Tokyo, an advertisement reads:
‘What is sustainable? We begin sustainable technology for a sustainable and developing
society.’ In Oslo, an advertisement depicts a young man, likely a student, with the
caption: ‘Here is the solution to the climate crisis.’ Next to him, a young woman is
portrayed with the caption ‘Here is the entrepreneur that outperforms Google.’
In general, innovation was a more frequent category than research, but less salient
than education – both in text and visually. The relative weight of these categories paints
a very clear picture of how, from the perspective of educational marketing, teaching and
learning, with an emphasis on career preparation, remains the most important message
in the advertisements we analyzed across the five cities.
Communication strategies
Following the visual analysis strategy, based on Kress and van Leewen (
2006
),
conceptual strategies for visual communication were more frequent than narrative
approaches. In the aggregate, 80% of the advertisements utilized conceptual communica-
tive strategies. This tendency was even more pronounced in Oslo, where all of the adver-
tisements identified were conceptual. Conversely, in Tokyo, a higher proportion of
narrative communicative strategies were visible, in 30% of all advertisements. In Boston,
an even higher proportion (40%) of advertisements involved narrative strategies.
Following the qualitative thematic analysis, we developed categories (codes) in order
to analyze the most central and most salient element in each of the advertisements. We
assigned codes to the following sub-categories: students, career preparation, academic
programs, academic staff, global scope, research, and innovation. Notably, the first five
codes refer to the category education from the knowledge triangle. Then, we assigned
these codes to the most central and the most salient elements for each of the advertise-
ments. In those instances where the central or salient elements did not coincide with the
existing categories, we added new codes (e.g. logo/brand, students and professors, open
campus).
Centrality
The most central elements for all of the advertisements analyzed, from the most to the
least frequent were: students (n = 16), academic program (n = 13), career (n = 9), logo/
brand (n = 6), academic staff (n = 4), global scope (n = 3), students with professors
(n = 3), other (n = 3) and open house advertisements (n = 2). Importantly, students,
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career preparation, and academic programs comprised 65% of the most central elements
in all of the advertisements analyzed. The most frequent central elements by city were:
students and academic programs in Boston; careers for Oslo; students in New York; stu-
dents and academic programs in Tokyo. Students were also the most frequent central
element in Toronto.
Saliency
The most salient elements for the advertisements analyzed, from the most frequent to
the least were: students (n = 29) – accounting for roughly 50% of the advertisements,
logo/brand (n = 9), academic programs (n = 6), academic staff (n = 4), professors with
students (n = 4), global scope (n = 3), open campus (n = 3), and career (n = 1). Students
and academic staff were represented in 65% of the advertisements.
Comparing elements across campaigns
Despite the differences that characterize the data collection sites and institutional types,
the resemblance of some of the campaigns in content and emphasis is at times remark-
able. Table
1
summarizes the three most central and three most salient elements in the
advertisements we analyzed, in total and by city. It shows that students receive more
attention in the advertisements across all five cities, in terms of centrality. The same can
be said regarding saliency. The preliminary findings of this study suggest that a high
level of similarity can be observed among different advertisements.
Discussion
In recent years, universities have witnessed an explosion in marketing and advertising
strategies. These campaigns are likely related to increasing global competition in higher
education and the construction of students as customers (Lomas,
2007
; Saunders,
2013
).
Marketing in higher education, therefore, needs to be understood as a response to
increased competition (Urciuoli,
2003
). These changes in the landscape of higher
education call for critical engagement with the ideas of advertising and marketing in the
context of higher education. This study analyzed advertisements collected in five differ-
ent cities located in North America, Europe, and East Asia. Given that the purposes of
Table 1. Most frequent central and salient elements in advertisements, by city.
Centrality
Saliency
Boston Students Academic
programs
Logo/brand
Students
Professors
and students
Faculty; global
New
York
Students Academic
programs
Career
Students;
logo/
brand
Academic
programs;
faculty
–
Oslo
Career
Academic
programs
Logo/brand
Students
Logo/brand Career; academic
programs
Tokyo
Students Academic
programs
Career; global;
open house
Students
Open house Academic programs;
global; logo/brand
Toronto Students Academic
programs
Faculty; logo/
brand; students &
professors
Students
Academic
programs
Faculty; logo/brand;
professors and
students
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higher education are contested and context-driven, we sought for a theoretical model
that could be applied to different institutional types and different higher education sys-
tems. The knowledge triangle, with its emphasis on education, research, and innovation,
served that purpose.
Following a mixed-methods approach to research, with an emphasis on visual
analysis, we examined the applicability of the knowledge triangle in five very distinct
higher education settings, represented in higher education institutions’ advertisements.
This process unearthed trends across the five cities we explored. The results from the
study reveal that, despite the differences in national systems, education constitutes over-
whelmingly the main component of the knowledge triangle represented in advertise-
ments. Moreover, students constitute the main sign to convey the educational purpose of
higher education institutions. In some instances, the similarities across the five cities
were striking, as reflected by the analysis of centrality and saliency conducted for this
study. Even if these results may seem predictable, this study is – to the best of our
knowledge – the first to explore comparatively higher education institutions’ advertise-
ments in more than one continent.
In order to make sense of the similarities in content and communicative strategies
across the five cities, the concept of isomorphism may offer some valuable insights.
The present research project was not intended to test for the presence of isomorphism.
The striking similarities in design, layout, and the display of visual and textual informa-
tion may also indicate the presence of mimetic efforts to replicate existing and accepted
marketing strategies.
Even though the present study is preliminary and not without limitations, the com-
parative study of higher education advertisements is likely to be of interest for scholars
of international higher education, and potentially for administrators and other practitio-
ners interested in global competition. This study constitutes a first approximation to a
complex phenomenon from an international perspective. Some of the challenges pre-
sented in the data involve the snapshot approach imposed by the need to travel interna-
tionally to collect data. This same snapshot approach presents the challenges of different
academic calendars. For example, the photographs collected in Tokyo were taken during
the open campus season, the time when prospective students visit universities. Data
collection at a different point may reveal different results. Finally, we wish to acknowl-
edge the interpretive nature of our research approach. While we consulted, when
possible, with local experts, we cannot claim expertise in the cultural context of all five
cities. Our analysis reflects our intersubjective sense-making.
Implications for further research
In this study, we applied theories of higher education to the study of marketing. Future
research should explore in depth the relationship between isomorphic pressures
(DiMaggio & Powell,
1983
) and the development of marketing campaigns in higher
education. Our future work is aimed at this goal. We also intend to further reflect upon
the potential and challenge of utilizing mixed-methods approaches for conducting visual
analysis. Visual analysis is relatively young in higher education, and this project has
taught us valuable lessons in the application of mixed-methods analyses for the
interpretation of visual information. In addition, future research shall explore websites.
Exploring websites may provide a complementary perspective to the printed advertise-
ments we have explored in this study.
10
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An additional line of inquiry that deserves further study is the relationship between
marketing strategies and institutional type. Further research should seek to identify
patterns connecting communicative strategies, like the ones identified here, and the
organizational types and academic programs offered by different institutions.
Conclusion
This study suggests that, while diverse, the content and communicative strategies dis-
played in advertisements for higher education institutions are not boundless. The educa-
tional function of higher education clearly overpowers research and innovation, at least
on the glossy paper displayed to advertise colleges in universities. This can be observed
across five very different cities, characterized by diverse institutions of higher learning.
Rather than conclusive, this study has been generative, leading to the identification of
new areas for research. The specific forces at play that could explain the similarities in
communicative strategies across different institutional types and national systems are yet
to be fully explained. However, higher education institutions are under pressure to
compete with each other, and advertising plays an important role in this increased
competition.
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