partners,
”
and
Shenyang City College, which forced Chinese students to clean foreign-student
dormitories.
Perhaps in response to the negative press about these cases, a recent move on the
Educational Belt and Road is to establish segregated satellite sites that are removed
from the main campus of host universities. Examples include Renmin University
’
s
Silk Road College in Suzhou in Jiangsu province (roughly 700 miles from the
main campus in Beijing) and Beijing Normal University
’
s Belt and Road School in
Zhuhai in Guangdong province (approximately 1,200 miles away). Targeting
master
’
s degree-seeking students from BRI countries, these schools aim to train the
next generation of leaders along the Belt and Road by inculcating them with
o
ffi
cial histories and theories about China
’
s politics, economy, society, and culture.
These schools openly acknowledge their mission in serving the Chinese state
’
s BRI
expansion strategy
—
an acknowledgment that earns them sustained government
funding. In a nutshell, such programs seek to produce graduates who are not only
sympathetic to the
“
China model
”
of development
—
characterized by strong state
leadership, press censorship, widespread surveillance and policing, and limited civil
society
—
but also active in bringing
“
the Chinese miracle
”
to their home countries.
148
Yifei Li and Judith Shapiro
Outside China, the Educational Belt and Road boasts a network of
“
Luban
Workshops
”
in countries as near as India and Thailand and as far as Zambia and
England. (The namesake
—
Lu Ban
—
was a legendary inventor and craftsman from
ancient times.) Luban Workshops are said to be
“
Confucius Institutes for technical
education,
”
re
fl
ecting the ambition to be as pervasive as the Confucius Institutes,
and as loyal to China
’
s overseas political interests (Lü
et al
., 2017). Scattered along
the Belt and Road, the Workshops are technical educational centers that prepare
locals for employment in the overseas arms of Chinese state-owned companies.
Luban programs feature fully translated textbooks that follow Chinese national
standards in areas from energy to automation, thus serving China
’
s strategic
“
Made in China 2025
”
goal of globalizing Chinese manufacturing and technical
standards. Students enrolled in Luban programs are expected to seek China
’
s
national professional certi
fi
cation in their technical area before they can be
employed by Chinese companies, thus forgoing the professional certi
fi
cation
system of the host country. O
ff
ering training in an expanding range of areas such
as digital manufacturing and computer engineering, Luban Workshops have
e
ff
ectively become enclaves of technical education in BRI countries, promoting a
suite of Chinese standards, businesses, interests, and values.
Educational globalization as a means for global dominance is a familiar trope.
There is, for example, clear evidence of how Mexico
’
s economic and political sys-
tems have been profoundly transformed by an elite class of U.S.-trained Mexican
economists. Well-versed in the neoliberal economics of the Chicago School, these
students molded Mexico into a textbook example of neoliberalism, rendering the
local educational institutions and knowledge systems outdated, if not irrelevant
(Babb, 2001). The BRI educational programs have followed the same playbook,
except that China is far more methodical in its pursuit of global in
fl
uence. Two
salient qualities of Chinese educational globalization stand out. First, the Educational
Belt and Road, including BRI-facing programs within China and Chinese-serving
curricula overseas, enjoys substantial state endorsement and
fi
nancial support from
Beijing. In fact, it is common for BRI-related educational o
ff
erings to boast state
sponsorship as a seal of authenticity. Ribbon-cutting ceremonies for such programs
prominently feature the personal attendance of high-level Chinese o
ffi
cials such as
ambassadors and Communist Party secretaries-general. This level of state involve-
ment and dominance gives these educational programs a particularly Chinese
fl
avor.
Second, the Educational Belt and Road is concerned with spreading the entire
complex of Chinese-approved knowledge, from details of technical speci
fi
cations
and coding conventions to overarching economic theories and political ideologies. In
other words, the Middle Kingdom is not content with exporting its general model of
“
socialism with Chinese characteristics
”
as the United States has done with the
neoliberal development model, but also is intent on controlling the underlying
technical speci
fi
cations, standards, and operating requirements in multiple economic
sectors and social realms.
Taken together, the state-led, all-encompassing rollout of the Educational Belt
and Road is re
fl
ective of the hyper-extractive logic in the age of global China. The
Rethinking Extractivism on China
’
s Belt and Road
149
previous strategy of overt extraction through the Thousand Talents Program
and the purchase of corporations that hold intellectual property rights has
become less attractive in light of the global backlash in recent years. Some
programs have gone underground, while others have subsided (Mallapaty,
2018). Instead of these earlier e
ff
orts, China has successfully assembled a series
of less visible extraction tactics, drawing top candidates from BRI countries into
China
’
s sphere of in
fl
uence. The examples reviewed above are part and parcel
of the Chinese state
’
s quiet indoctrination campaign to normalize its
“
o
ffi
cial
”
knowledge system. They serve to defend China
’
s social, economic, and political
agendas on the global stage.
In many regions of this Sinicized world, China has become the most obvious
route to developmental success. To borrow a concept from Noam Chomsky, in
the name of education, China is
“
manufacturing consent
”
on the Belt and Road
(Herman and Chomsky, 2002). Through its concerted e
ff
orts, China has prepared
the necessary conditions to elicit compliance, thus making alternative options
increasingly unattractive. Indeed, BRI host countries such as Djibouti must wrestle
with the reality that their own citizens have become skilled workers certi
fi
ed by
Chinese authorities to operate Chinese-made bullet trains that run on tracks that
comply with Chinese standards, with the help of operations manuals in Mandarin.
The most deeply traumatic
—
but least physically tangible
—
consequence of the
BRI is that when countries go
“
China-lite
”
(Reilly, 2013), their totalized accep-
tance of Chinese products, technologies, economic approaches, and governance
tools seems utterly compelling to their governments, technocrats, and citizens. This
is the payo
ff
for China of its secret weapon of
“
heart-to-heart connectivity.
”
Emerging Resistance in a COVID-19 World
The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has, unexpectedly, changed the terms of
the debate and the intensity of the BRI
’
s ambitions, and it has strengthened the
voices of BRI skeptics. Along with the poorest members of wealthy Western
democracies, much of the developing world su
ff
ers the greatest burden of the
pandemic, with health care and testing inadequate, social distancing often impos-
sible in crowded living and laboring conditions, and the poorest unable to self-
quarantine when they need to work in order to eat. In this context, many blame
the Chinese state for its lack of transparency and outrageous mishandling of the
initial outbreak in Wuhan. The negative perception of China has simmered for a
long time because of labor and environmental disputes and loan practices that lock
recipients into dependent relationships with the donor. Now it has been solidi
fi
ed
by knowledge of the grievances of Chinese citizens and the government
’
s e
ff
orts to
suppress the courageous warnings of local doctor-heroes. Criticism of the Chinese
government
’
s initial handling of the pandemic has led mainstream politicians
around the world more openly to question Belt and Road propagandists
’
promises
of co-bene
fi
ts and shared prosperity
—
the same promises that they previously
endorsed without blinking an eye.
150
Yifei Li and Judith Shapiro
In some places along the Belt and Road, the aggregated grievances against
China
’
s extractive activities are being woven into a wholesale reevaluation of the
BRI
’
s claims of mutual bene
fi
ts and win-win outcomes. The Hamrawein coal-
fi
red power plant in Egypt has been postponed. Pakistan has requested a more
lenient repayment agreement. African leaders have banded together to call for
emergency debt forgiveness.
“
Only a drunkard would accept these terms,
”
declared
Tanzania President John Magufuli on April 25, 2020 in regards to a proposed BRI
loan of US $10 billion. Such high-level and angry rejections underscore the pro-
found discontent with the extractive logic of the BRI, even as concerns about the
spread of the virus have put many Chinese-funded and -led infrastructure projects
on hold. Globally, the pandemic has given rise to rampant expressions of racism,
discrimination, and xenophobia, especially against individuals of Chinese descent
(Devakumar
et al
., 2020). Even before the wave of coronavirus infections arrived in
Africa, the spread of Sinophobia had resulted in escalated tension between the
locals and nearly one million Chinese nationals who live and work on the con-
tinent (Solomon, 2020). In this context, a top-level Chinese
“
internal report
”
warned of a global backlash similar to that which followed the 1989 Tiananmen
Square protests (Hirschberg, 2020). Perhaps in response, China has ratcheted up its
coronavirus-related aid in the form of donated ventilators, protective gear, and
masks. China has even loaned medical assistance teams and built new coronavirus
testing labs along a so-called Health Belt and Road in places like Angola and
Gabon. (China made the same o
ff
er to California, which rejected it on the grounds
of national security.)
The timing of such public outcries in the midst of a pandemic raises critical
questions about accountability, subaltern voices, and political hegemony in our
increasingly unequal world. The risks of working with China on the BRI are many,
including the unfavorable collaterals of BRI loans, ecological consequences of mas-
sive ports and roads, and secretive bilateral negotiations that do not include those
most a
ff
ected by such projects. In fact, citizens of BRI recipient countries have been
aware of these risks all along. Many constituencies have voiced concerns, from indi-
genous groups to legal activists and scholars in universities in the developing world.
However, in the pre-coronavirus world, cautions and grievances were swept under
the rug by political elites. Governments across Eurasia and beyond signed up for BRI
partnerships with China and issued high-level endorsements for the initiative. United
Nations agencies jumped on the same bandwagon.
There is a glaring contrast between the elite politics of silence and support in the
pre-pandemic age and the populist politics of China-shaming in the pandemic-
stricken world. The nearly universal acquiescence during the pre-pandemic era
—
bolstered by China
’
s secretive bilateral agreements with 137 sovereign states and 30
international organizations
—
re
fl
ects a collective self-deception on the part of
international political elites in their dance with the Chinese state. In embracing
China
’
s discourse of win-win development, they failed to protect the wellbeing of
their own citizens, resources, and landscapes. The sudden shift to the populist
politics of China-shaming in the midst of the coronavirus pandemic, however,
Rethinking Extractivism on China
’
s Belt and Road
151
suggests a denial of responsibility on the part of political leaders in China
’
s BRI
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