Nurul Imansari. 3(4): 506-517

CHAPTER I. THE REALISTIC NOVEL OF THE 19TH CENTURY
1.1. Stages of development of the English novel in the period 1830-1890
Just as during the development of society one cultural and historical period replaces another, so in literature the era of poetry replaces the era of dramaturgy, the decline of poetry entails the flourishing of prose. Period 1830-1890 English literary scholars call it the "age of the novel", in contrast to the "epoch of poetry" or the heyday of drama - the period of the Restoration. The flourishing of the novel was due to the peculiarity of the socio-cultural life of England. It was in the 30s. 19th century the development of industry began, which caused the growth of the urban population, an increase in the number of workers, class contradictions and the need for reforms. All these changes in English society took place during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901), which is why this period is usually called the "Victorian era". It is customary to distinguish four stages in the development of the novel of this era: early Victorian, mid-century, “mature” and late Victorian. Each of these periods covers from 15 to 20 years. The Victorian novel is the result of the fusion of two branches of novel creativity - "novel" and "romance", the first of which has a realistic beginning, the second - a romantic one. Depending on the period, one or the other beginning prevailed in the English novel. During the literary era lasting 60 years, many genre modifications of the novel appeared: historical, social, “Newgate”, “sensational”, religious, novels from school life and from the life of the aristocratic elite of society. At the same time, in the 30-40s. 19th century predominantly historical novels were created (among the most famous writers of this period, W.E. Ainsworth, E. Bulwer should be noted), as well as social problems (the novels of F. Trollope, E. Gaskell).
In the middle of the century, prose works acquire a social orientation. The authors depict the fate, love and family relationships of the characters in the context of socio-political and historical events. Typical features of novels 50-60 years. 19th century is the complicated structure of the narrative and the interest in the psychology of the characters.
Dickens appeared on the literary scene in the mid-1930s. 19th century, and after the publication of several chapters of his first novel, The Pickwick Papers, became the most popular writer in England. The creative activity of the writer coincides with the period of early and middle Victorianism, therefore, all the distinctive features of this literary era are inherent in his works. In the novels of Dickens, the romantic beginning is combined with a realistic depiction of reality. In the novels of the 40-50s. (“Dombey and Son”, “Bleak House”, “Hard Times”, etc.) the writer skillfully reveals the individual-personal content in connection with the socio-historical environment.
In later novels (More Hope, Our Mutual Friend, The Secret of Edwin Drood), interest in the psychology and inner life of the hero is combined with a loss of faith in the possibility of changing society through reform. Such a state of mind of the writer leads to a change in the tone of the novels. If the first works are filled with optimism, in accordance with the aesthetic concept of the author, then in the novels of the last period of creativity, optimism comes to naught. Dickens was the favorite writer of the English middle classes. What is the reason for its popularity? The European novel was formed by the 40s. 19th century as an epic of private life, where everyday life and human experiences were outlined in detail. More attention is paid to the family as the basic unit of society, the “home”, which the English bourgeois calls his fortress. Despite the limited range of problems, the so-called "family romance" does not suffer from the pettiness of the content. Such a novel was focused on the average user, was close and understandable to him. In many works of the writer, family relations come to the fore, but they always come into contact with the big world, reflect many aspects of life or represent them directly. In an era of prosperity, when the economic and social foundations of society were firmly held, the reader, not wanting to delve into global problems, preferred literature of a light, entertaining nature. It is precisely in frivolity, lack of criticism, indulgence in the tastes of the public that Dickens is often reproached. But this is far from true. Even in the years of prosperity, nothing could hide the vices of society, but then it seemed to many that these phenomena were temporary, that evil could be eradicated. Dickens shared confidence in the foundations of bourgeois society, however, at the same time he himself mercilessly denounced many of the institutions of power in England, the arbitrariness of the court and the injustice of laws. The writer's novels express his understanding of higher spiritual values. And since they are enduring, each generation, rereading the works of Dickens, finds in them something consonant with the moods and experiences of the modern era.
Charles Dickens was the most popular writer of his time in England. His novels, which first appeared in periodicals and then came out in separate editions, spread with astonishing speed. The works of Dickens were especially loved by representatives of the so-called middle stratum of the bourgeoisie. Literally from the time of the appearance of the first novel and until the end of his life, the popularity of the writer grew and strengthened. Each new work of his was reviewed in reputable literary magazines and in most provincial publications. Review articles appeared with an analysis of certain novels. However, the attitude to the work of Dickens was far from unambiguous. As early as 1836, disputes arose in the English press over the evaluation of the works of the great writer. A number of liberal journals ("Morning Post", "People's Journal") spoke favorably of Dickens. Conservative publications (Monthly Review, etc.) noted the unsuccessful choice of the topic of the Pickwick Papers, the gloomy tone of the story, and called his works too ordinary. The controversy continued throughout the life of the writer. Some critics called him the greatest writer of his time, an educator of high moral principles, others considered him the author of "second-rate" books. The Edinburgh Review, which expressed the views of the liberal-minded bourgeoisie, welcomed the writer's ability to soften and smooth the social problems of his novels. The conservative press expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that Dickens often portrays the "lower classes." Reviews of the writer's work also appeared in the Chartist press (the years of Dickens's creative activity coincided with the development of Chartism in England), where he was called a realist, a debunker of an inhuman bourgeois society. At the same time, Chartist critics did not accept Dickens' idea that class contradictions could be resolved peacefully.
The first contemporary of the great writer, who gave a detailed analysis of the artistic system of his works, was the French positivist critic Hippolyte Taine. In 1856 he published his article "Dickens", later, in 1864, he revealed his views on the writer's work in the "History of English Literature". In this work, Taine considers the subject matter, choice of character, style, Dickens' aesthetic program and ways of expressing it. Based on the biographical approach developed by Ch. Saint-Beuve, Taine pointed out the connection of Dickens with bourgeois society, the social conditioning of his art. In his assessment, the writer appears as a typical spokesman for the tastes and ideals of the English bourgeois of the Victorian era.
Having received wide recognition during his lifetime, already in the first decade after his death, Dickens began to lose popularity. From the end of the 60s. his works were criticized by naturalists, who reproached the author for a lack of empiricism. The first serious remarks about his art were made in 1872 by the positivist critic Henry Lewis. Admiring the talent of the writer, he at the same time criticized his skill as a realist, finding it insufficiently accurate and scientific. Lewis did not accept accusatory tendencies and generalizations in Dickens' novels.
After the death of C. Dickens, works began to appear containing the facts of the writer's biography. The first of these was a book by John Forster, his closest friend. In the 90s. 19th century naturalist writer Gissing presented his subjective assessment of Dickens' heritage in the book "Dickens". In his work, the writer acts as a typical representative of the Victorian era, not deviating from generally accepted norms.
Despite the huge number of biographical works about Dickens, the publication of his letters and memoirs about him, interest in the writer's work gradually faded. At 10-30 years. 20th century Dickens's popularity with writers sank to its lowest point. He was considered an author who is read only by children, and studied only according to the program. This attitude was largely facilitated by the historical situation that developed at the turn of the century. The transition period, generated by the crisis of bourgeois ideology, caused dissatisfaction with the state of art and required new approaches to depicting reality. The First World War forced to reconsider the attitude to life values ​​and established beliefs. It was in 10-20 years. In the 20th century there is a break with the Victorians in attitudes, habits, tastes. With the exception of Chesterton, Gissing and Shaw, who highly appreciated the art of Dickens, none of the critics and intellectual writers shared the previously held idea of ​​​​the legendary creator.
However, the name of Dickens was not completely forgotten, since interest in the Victorian era has always persisted in England to one degree or another.
From the beginning of the 20th century, literary criticism and criticism began to play a particularly important role in the literary process. Having absorbed the most diverse areas of knowledge, literary criticism has become an autonomous science. If we consider English and American literary criticism as a whole, it should be noted that, despite the influence that various critical schools of these countries exerted on each other, English and American literary criticism is not a single whole. English criticism is based on historical traditions and teachings that developed rapidly in the 19th century. (activities of M. Arnold, T. Eliot). Literary criticism of America has no such basis. But both in the USA and in England in the 10-30s. In the 20th century, along with traditional trends, the so-called “new criticism” developed, which included a lot of new approaches to the study of a literary work.
Of course, all theorists needed material on the basis of which it was possible to build reasoning. Therefore, all or almost all of them turned to the works of the classics of world literature. Dickens was also not ignored by representatives of various critical schools, and his novels were subjected to careful and detailed analysis both in terms of form and content. It is customary to distinguish 5 most influential approaches in literary criticism: moralizing, psychoanalytic, sociological, formalistic and mythological. At the turn of the century, Henry James, known in literary circles not only as a talented American prose writer, but also as a major theorist of the novel, the author of the concept of “points of view,” which subsequently relied on representatives of the semantic direction of “new criticism”, was taken to study the legacy of Dickens. G. James preferred the study of the formal aspects of the novel, the mastery of its construction. The critic emphasizes Dickens's "naivete" and "unconsciousness", the absence of elements of theorizing and self-interpretation in his works. In a similar vein, the English writer Virginia Woolf evaluates the work of Dickens, whose criticism was both her permanent and professional occupation. Using an aesthetic approach to the analysis of the writer's works, which defends the inherent value of literature, V. Wulff, who studies the connection between emotion and the form of its expression, finds Dickens' books primitive, vulgar and shapeless, not of particular value from the point of view of the development of the novel along the line of a deep psychological depiction of human relations .
At the beginning of the 20th century in England, a ritual-mythological critical school was born, the founder of which was J. Fraser. In the United States, interest in myth began to appear as early as the 19th century, however, the first myth-critical studies in the literary criticism of this country are associated with the appearance of the works of C. Jung. Representatives of the English mythological school developed the concept of the ritual origin of culture, the heroic epos, fairy tales, ancient culture and the novel. It was based on the theory of J. Fraser about the origin of the myth from seasonal rituals. American myth critics, in particular N. Fry, actually equate literature and myth, reducing the theme of any work of art to its fundamental principle. From these positions, critics of the mythological school consider Ch. Dickens' novel Oliver Twist. They identify the plot of the foundling with the theme developed by Euripides, which, in turn, is reduced to the myths of Perseus and Moses, thus explaining the origins of the work.
If for English literary criticism of the beginning of the 20th century. Because of the abundance of works containing biographical information about Dickens, European - German, in particular - criticism is dominated by a formalistic approach to the study of the heritage of the famous English writer of the 19th century. German researchers consider only individual problems (artistic techniques, narration style), classify female and children's images, focus on the features of Dickens as a teacher, criminologist, author of a separate work, but do not analyze the writer's creative system as a whole. There are much fewer works that raise the question of the social content of Dickens' novels in German literary criticism, but this type of research appears in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in the works of Aronstein, Wulker, Weber.
In the literary criticism of France in the early 20th century. Dickens qualifies as a "naive" realist and humorist, an author who, in accordance with his convictions, sympathies and the nature of his work, is ranked among the common writers. Calling Dickens one of the greatest writers of the Victorian period, French critics find his realism simplistic to the point of vulgarity.
During the second decade of the 20th century, during the years of the First World War, attacks on Dickens did not stop. He is hailed as an author whose works have lost their significance for modern times. It was at this time that there was a complete break with the Victorian era. This was stated in 1918 by Lytton Stragi in his book Famous Victorians.
A turn in the views and moods towards the art of writers of the 19th century. emerged in the early 1930s. Many literary scholars considered it necessary to revise the heritage of the Victorians, based on the socio-historical features of the 19th century. The conclusion that the researchers made was as follows: the reign of Queen Victoria was not as calm as it seems at first glance. The writers of this period faced difficulties no less serious than the readers of the 20th century, nevertheless they did not leave their optimism and faith in the elimination of injustice.

1.2. Creativity of Charles Dickens in the cultural and historical context of the Victorian era

English realistic novel of the 19th century. is based on the tradition created by W. Scott and J. Osten, who, in turn, are based on the achievements of enlightenment writers. It is impossible not to note the enormous influence that the work of Jane Austen had on the novelists of the Victorian era. Researchers of the writer's heritage note in her novels the interweaving of features inherent in two eras: an appeal to the moral problems of the Victorians and the objectivity and skepticism of the Enlightenment. This is not surprising, since the period of J. Osten's creative activity coincides with a turning point in the development of the novel. At the turn of the century, a new - romantic - direction was formed, the transitional stage to which from the enlightenment novel was pre-romanticism. Writers of pre-romanticism tend to depict the unusual, mystical, mysterious. At this time, the so-called "Gothic novel" or "horror novel" was widely used.
J. Osten's works differ significantly from the legacy of her contemporaries in the choice of characters, themes, general mood, style of narration and artistic means. The writer is closer to a realistic moralistic novel with a simple storyline and a logical explanation of events. "Gothic novel" J. Osten parodies in his works. The heroes of her novels are representatives of the privileged classes of English society. The action takes place in the province, only sometimes it is transferred to the capital.
J. Austen was a witness to many political and economic events that took place in Europe and England at the turn of the century. Possessing extraordinary powers of observation, the writer could not fail to see the vices of the society to which she herself belonged. However, she did not write about everything she saw, deliberately limiting herself to depicting the private life of her circle, since she was bound by the prejudices of those around her about the place of a woman in society. Nevertheless, the writer condemns many things with her subtle and restrained irony, when one word inserted into a dissimilar context becomes a source of ridicule, completely changing the meaning of what is being said. J. Osten seeks not so much to illuminate the movement of the hero in space and time, but to depict his character, feelings and moods.
If we draw an analogy between the image method and the artistic means of J. Austen and C. Dickens, it turns out that they differ significantly. The novels of Dickens, right up to the last decade of his work, are a good-natured caricature of reality; a means of highlighting the shortcomings of society - humor. For J. Osten, irony is such a means. In Dickens, there is a clear distinction between heroes into “positive” and “negative” characters. Austen endows his characters with a variety of traits that unexpectedly manifest themselves in a given situation. Finally, Austen rarely resorts to any descriptions, in particular to the depiction of nature and interiors. The landscape is used by her only as a means to help reveal the inner state of the hero, to feel more deeply the atmosphere of the moment. But even in this case, Austen's description is rather factual, in contrast to Dickens' descriptions, which are saturated with various shades of color. Let's compare the description of a summer morning in the novels by J. Austen "Northanger Abbey" and Dickens's "The Pickwick Papers". Austen conveys his perception of the weather through the behavior of the characters: “Tomorrow it was a magnificent morning ... A good day in Bath drives all its inhabitants out of the house, forcing them to poison themselves for a walk in order to express their admiration for the wonderful weather to their acquaintances.”
Dickens creates in the reader's imagination a picture of a beautiful summer morning with the help of colors: “The sky was clear and clean, the air was fragrant, and everything around appeared in all its beauty ... To the left of the observer there was a dilapidated wall ... and green ivy twined around around the dark and ruined loopholes... The colorful panorama seemed even more beautiful from the changeable shadows that quickly ran across it when the light and blurry clouds melted in the rays of the morning sun. The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, sparkled and sparkled.”
1.3 Ch. Dickens in the assessment of Western literary criticism
English realistic novel of the 19th century. is based on the tradition created by W. Scott and J. Osten, who, in turn, are based on the achievements of enlightenment writers. It is impossible not to note the enormous influence that the work of Jane Austen had on the novelists of the Victorian era. Researchers of the writer's heritage note in her novels the interweaving of features inherent in two eras: an appeal to the moral problems of the Victorians and the objectivity and skepticism of the Enlightenment. This is not surprising, since the period of J. Osten's creative activity coincides with a turning point in the development of the novel. At the turn of the century, a new - romantic - direction was formed, the transitional stage to which from the enlightenment novel was pre-romanticism. Writers of pre-romanticism tend to depict the unusual, mystical, mysterious. At this time, the so-called "Gothic novel" or "horror novel" was widely used.
J. Osten's works differ significantly from the legacy of her contemporaries in the choice of characters, themes, general mood, style of narration and artistic means. The writer is closer to a realistic moralistic novel with a simple storyline and a logical explanation of events. "Gothic novel" J. Osten parodies in his works. The heroes of her novels are representatives of the privileged classes of English society. The action takes place in the province, only sometimes it is transferred to the capital.
J. Austen was a witness to many political and economic events that took place in Europe and England at the turn of the century. Possessing extraordinary powers of observation, the writer could not fail to see the vices of the society to which she herself belonged. However, she did not write about everything she saw, deliberately limiting herself to depicting the private life of her circle, since she was bound by the prejudices of those around her about the place of a woman in society. Nevertheless, the writer condemns many things with her subtle and restrained irony, when one word inserted into a dissimilar context becomes a source of ridicule, completely changing the meaning of what is being said. J. Osten seeks not so much to illuminate the movement of the hero in space and time, but to depict his character, feelings and moods.
If we draw an analogy between the image method and the artistic means of J. Austen and C. Dickens, it turns out that they differ significantly. The novels of Dickens, right up to the last decade of his work, are a good-natured caricature of reality; a means of highlighting the shortcomings of society - humor. For J. Osten, irony is such a means. In Dickens, there is a clear distinction between heroes into “positive” and “negative” characters. Austen endows his characters with a variety of traits that unexpectedly manifest themselves in a given situation. Finally, Austen rarely resorts to any descriptions, in particular to the depiction of nature and interiors. The landscape is used by her only as a means to help reveal the inner state of the hero, to feel more deeply the atmosphere of the moment. But even in this case, Austen's description is rather factual, in contrast to Dickens' descriptions, which are saturated with various shades of color. Let's compare the description of a summer morning in the novels by J. Austen "Northanger Abbey" and Dickens's "The Pickwick Papers". Austen conveys his perception of the weather through the behavior of the characters: “Tomorrow it was a magnificent morning ... A good day in Bath drives all its inhabitants out of the house, forcing them to poison themselves for a walk in order to express their admiration for the wonderful weather to their acquaintances.”1
Dickens creates in the reader's imagination a picture of a beautiful summer morning with the help of colors: “The sky was clear and clean, the air was fragrant, and everything around appeared in all its beauty ... To the left of the observer there was a dilapidated wall ... and green ivy twined around around the dark and ruined loopholes... The colorful panorama seemed even more beautiful from the changeable shadows that quickly ran across it when the light and blurry clouds melted in the rays of the morning sun. The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, sparkled and sparkled.”2
[“Bright and pleasant was the sky, balmly the air, and beautiful the appearance of every object around... On the left of the spectator lay the ruined wall, ... and the green ivy clung round the dark, and ruined battlements ... A rich and varied landscape rendered more beautiful by the changing shadows which passed swiftly across it, and the thin and half-formed clouds skimmed fway in the light of the morning sun. The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled.”]

Chaprter II

2.1 The Representation of Social Class in the Illustration of Sketches by Boz by Dickens
The study takes Charles Dickens’ Sketches by Boz (1895) as the primary texts and identifies the problem evoked in the novel. The method used in this study was a descriptive qualitative. By using Weitzman theory about the illustration and narration, the study examine how social class is portrayed in the illustration of Dickens’ Sketches by Boz by focusing particularly on the variety of techniques used by the illustrators in producing the illustrations. Weitzman argues that the illustration is controlled by the content of the text and the illustration bound strongly to the text to explain the story within the narration. Firstly, the researcher will explain argument about the relationship between the narration and the illustration in Sketches by Boz then identify the elements which represent the social status in the illustration and how do people from different class are differentiated. Also, the history of illustration and the changing technology of illustration will be considered to depict the representation of social class in Dickens’ Sketches by Boz narration. The secondary data will be reviewed through the library research method using a range of information sources such as the books, journals, articles relevant to the analysis, and internet search engines.