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2.2 
Supra-segmental Phonology 
Supra-segmental phonology deals with so-called ´supra-segmental elements´. 
Supra-segmental elements are features of speech generally applied to groups of 
phonemes within an utterance. Word stress, sentence stress, intonation and how sounds 
change in connected speech (for example assimilation, elision, linking and intrusion) 
are important supra-segmental elements in English language. Learners should be aware 
of such elements as if they are pronounced the message to be conveyed might not be 
understood at all or might be misunderstood. Some terminology must be explained first 
to be able to deal with such an English pronunciation area. 
2.2.1 Stress 
Syllable – every English word has one or more syllables. “A syllable always has a 
vowel sound and usually contains a consonant sound between it and the next syllable.” 
(Hagen and Gorgan 1992, 1) David Crystal adds syllable is “an element of speech that 
acts as a unit of rhythm.” (2003, 468) 
Stress - is the amount of effort expended on a syllable. (MacCarthy 1978, 107) Stressed 
syllable is marked by placing a small vertical line (´) before the syllable it relates to. 
Stress placement and stress levels can be studied with isolated words (´syllable stress´ 
and ´word stress´) or in the context of continuous speech (´sentence stress´). For 
example: fertility /f 
Ǭ
ǬǬ
Ǭ::::´
´
´
´
t i l 
ə
 t I/ , auntie / ´
aaaa
:nti/
 

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Stressed Syllables - Listeners when listening for a stressed syllable in a word can 
recognize it thanks to the pitch of voice, vowel length and vowel pronunciation. (Hagen 
and Grogan 1992, 3) In the stressed syllable the pitch is higher than in the preceding 
syllable, the vowel is both much longer and is pronounced fully without reduction or 
dropping. (Hagen and Grogan 1992, 3) 
Word stress - “English words of more than one syllable have both stressed (´strong´) 
and unstressed (´weak´) syllables.” (Hagen and Grogan 1992, 1) Moreover, Joanne 
Kenworthy suggests, “In English language word stress is both variable and mobile”, 
which means that any syllable of a polysyllabic word can carry the main stress. (1987, 
59) Besides, placement of the main stress can also be influenced by a word class. 
Except for this, some English words can be pronounced in two different ways; these are 
called strong and weak forms. Peter Roach points out “There are about forty such words 
in English. Almost all these words belong to a category that may be called function 
words.” (2000, 112) Auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions are examples 
of the category called ´function words´.
Strong forms - there are certain contexts where only the strong form is acceptable 
such as stressing a word for the purpose of emphasis, when quoting a word, when a 
weak form word occurs at the end of a sentence and so on. For example: hæv, s
Ȝ
Ȝ
Ȝ
Ȝ