Morphological structure of a word. Classification of Morphemes

Proverbs (пословицы)

Besides phr. units the language has set phrases which are equivalents of sentences. They are proverbs, sayings, aphorisms. E.g. custom is second nature.
Proverbs are set phrases because they also are not created in the process of speech. They are part of the vocabulary which are created by folk. If we compare R. and E. proverbs and phr. fusions we’ll discover some interesting phenomena. Both languages have analogues proverbs:
Appetite comes with eating. Don’t look a gift horse into the mouth.
Sometimes the meaning are analogues but the semantic center of the phrases is different in R. and in E. E.g. Rome was not built in a day – Москва не сразу строилась.
Proverbs is a short saying usually well-known and handed down from ancient times, containing words of advice, warning or wisdom.

4.Lexico-semantic grouping in Modern E. Lexicon

The meaning relations that hold within the vocabulary of a language between words themselves are called lexical or sense relations. Lexemes can be grouped together into lexical fields on the bases of shared meaning. The description of meaning, the definition of lexemes is then undertaken within each lexico-semantic field & involves defining each lexeme in relation to the other lexemes in its field. Hence, we distinguish b/n synonymic, antonymic & hyponymic fields.
The term synonymy deals with sameness of meaning, when one & the same meaning is expressed by more than 1 word. Synonyms can be used interchangeably (взаимозаменяемо). e.g. “discover” & “find”: We have found/ discovered the boys hiding in the shed (syn). The definition of synonyms as interchangeable in all contexts is sometimes referred to as strict synonymy. But many linguists doubt if the synonymy of this kind occur at all. When we talk ab synonymy, we are thinking much rather as pairs of words that can substitute for each other in a wide range of contexts, but not necessarily absolutely, or of that, having the same general reference. e.g. big – large, freedom – liberty, first – initial.
Modern definition: synonyms may differ in connotations having the same denotation. e.g. denotation connotation (degree): to like- warm feeling; to admire–warmer; to love- the strongest emotion
Traditional definition (based on the conceptual criteria): Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differ in stylistic characteristics (shades of meaning). e.g. to begin (stylistically neutral), to start (colloquial speech), to commence (bookish).
Each Synonymic group has a dominant element. The synonymic dominant is the most general term. e.g. to look – to stare – to glance – to gaze, to question – to ask – to enquire – to interrogate. The synonymic dominant is characterized by a following features: * high frequency of uses, * broad combine ability (- to be used in combination with various classes of words), * broad general meaning, * lack of connotations.
Classification of synonyms:

1. 
   Ideografic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but different shade of meaning (to like, to love, to admire).
   
2. 
   Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but different in stylistic characteristics (sky, heaven).
   
3. 
   Stylistic colouring may be accompanied by difference in emotional colouring or some other shades of meaning. (head-onion, money-cabbage).
   
4. 
   contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions. (to bear – to suffer – to stand, only when are used in the negative form).
   
5. 
   Absolute (total) synonyms are words co-insiding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics.(to say-to tell)
   

Sources of synonyms * Latin / French borrowings. e.g. begin (E): commence (F), initiate (L), fine (E): beautiful (F). * euphemisms “eu” – well, “phemi” – I speak.