Modern leadership and management methods for development organizations

2.2 Trait Theory 
The search for the characteristics of leaders has continued for centuries. Certain qualities 
distinguishing an individual as a leader have been explored in philosophical writings from 
Plato's Republic to Plutarch's Lives, which shows us the early recognition of the importance 
of leadership centuries ago. The idea of leadership based on a complex of special qualities 
turned out to become the first solid leadership concept which is known as the "trait theory 
of leadership". It had been suggested that true leaders are not developed but born with a set 
of certain characteristics due to which they are able to improve their organizational skills 
and to fortify their position as leaders. These characteristics include appearance, personality
traits, abilities and skills, legacy and social status. This approach is based on T.Carlyle’s 
Great Men Theory, according to which history can be largely explained by the impact of 
"great men", or heroes - highly influential individuals who, due to either their personal 
charisma, intelligence, wisdom or political skill, utilized their power in a way that had a
decisive historical impact [10].
The trait theory’s main goal is to compile an ultimate list of q
ualities the ideal leader 
needs. R.M. 
Stogdill’s research showed 
the importance of such traits as intellect, 
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observation, concern for other people’s needs, understanding of 
current circumstances, 
perseverance, drive, self-confidence and preparedness for taking responsibility [11].
However, after meeting some obstacles during the compilation process, Stogdill concluded 
that there’s no universal set of tra
its applicable for every leader; characteristics vary 
depending on followers, circumstances, activity and 
ultimate goals. Mostly, it’s quite 
difficult to determine whether one set of traits is better than another or not. 
The 1980s’ new research methods allowed researchers to review the trait theory. 
Statistical advances allowed them to conduct meta-analyses, in which they could 
quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent 
allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research 
rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Thereby, it was revealed that 
individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks. Moreover, 
significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as intelligence, 
adjustment, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience and general self-
efficacy [12-18]. Nonetheless, S.J. Zaccaro noted that trait theories are still concentrated on 
a small set of specific individual attributes, ignoring cognitive abilities, motives, values, 
social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills whatsoever. Also, they fail to consider 
patterns or integrations of multiple attributes; they do not distinguish between those leader 
attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and 
bound to, situational influences; they do not consider how stable leader attributes account 
for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership [19]. 
The trait concept has become the foundation of the majority of recruitment, hiring and 
promotion methods [20].