Ministry of higher and secondary special education of the republic of uzbekistan samarkand state institute of foreign languages

Romanticism 1
Robert Burns
Romanticism - as a school - did not exist in England. Here, as in France and Germany, there was no group of writers united on a romantic platform. And nevertheless, a number of typical signs of romanticism that distinguished English literature in the first decades of the 19th century give the right to speak of a romantic trend in England.
These signs were: protest against classical rationality, especially against classical rules, and opposing them with individual poetic freedom; further, interest in nationality and in antiquity, in the Middle Ages - in contrast to Antiquity, which was the main content of classicism; an interest in exoticism that drew the attention of English romantics to Scotland, the land of old folk songs and legends. Nature and countryside are flowing into English romantic poetry.
Finally, revolutionary sentiments, fascination with the French Revolution, and political radicalism play an important role in English poetry of the Romantic period. The village singer, republican and admirer of the French Revolution was Robert Burns [1759-1796].
Godwin [1756-1836] in his novel "The Adventures of Caleb Williams" and other works defends the most revolutionary ideas of his time, not only in the field of politics, but also in the field of education and marriage, ahead of the then English revolutionary thought. The so-called "Lake School" (from the residence around the lakes) includes a number of poets. Of these, Wordsworth [1770-1850] was the head of the school. The dreamy poet, in love with nature, of small phenomena that he knew how to make sublime and touching, he, together with his friend Coleridge [1772-1834], was a representative of that trend in romanticism, which, together with love for nature, introduced a simple, artless language, images of patriarchal antiquity. contemplation and daydreaming. The third poet of the lake school - Southey [1774-1843] wrote in the spirit of his friends, adding fantastic pictures of the exotic countries of Mexico, India, Arabia to the idyllic images of lake poetry. And the poets of the lake school were fond of the revolution, but not for long. Wordsworth and Coleridge traveled to Germany, where they were influenced by German romantic idealism and ended up in pure contemplation.
Along with the populist romanticism of the lake school, the greatest poet of the era Byron [1788-1824] was a representative of revolutionary aristocratic romanticism. Despising the high society, with which he was connected by his origin, breaking away from his class, not seeing anything attractive in the representatives of capital, greedy and corrupt hucksters, Byron in his youth burst into a fiery speech in defense of the workers, but after that he did not return to this issue, on all his life he remained a declassified aristocrat, a rebellious individualist revolutionary, a singer of dissatisfied disenchanted natures, starting with mysterious demonic wanderers and robbers ("Gyaur", "Lara", etc.). The same image is deepened in Childe Harold, which has become the subject of wide imitation in European poetry. Byron ended with a protest against the universe and the world order in his godless tragedies ("Manfred" and "Cain"). Towards the end of his life, Byron came close to political and social satire ("Don Juan", "Bronze Age"). Extreme individualism, a feeling of dissatisfaction, attraction to the East and exotic countries, love of nature and loneliness, dreams of the past near ruins and monuments - all this makes Byron a poet of English romanticism, and his angry accusatory protests against all forms of violence and exploitation, his connections with the Italian Carbonari and the struggle for the liberation of Greece made him a singer of freedom in the eyes of the European intelligentsia. His friend Percy Bysshe Shelley [1792-1822], a genius lyric poet, also an aristocrat, like Byron, combines in his poetry the world of fantastic romance with a revolutionary protest against the emerging bourgeois capitalist society. In his poem "Queen Mab" he depicts this society where everything is "sold in the public market", where, with the help of severe hunger, the master drives his slaves under the yoke of hired labor. Shelley is the same revolutionary romantic in his other poems (Laon and Tsitna, Unchained Prometheus, etc.). His wife Mary Shelley, author of Frankenstein, is a pioneer in the question of scientist responsibility. Walter Scott [1771-1831] reveals, like two great poets, a tendency towards antiquity. He was the creator of a historical novel (Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Quentin Dorward, The Templars, etc.), in which he was able to combine believability and realism with rich romantic fiction and portray the most dramatic moments in the national history of Scotland and England.
In the first third of the XIX century. the first stage of the struggle between the nobility and the industrial bourgeoisie, which is increasingly becoming the master of the situation, ends. The struggle against the grain laws, Chartism and the actions of the working class, powerfully declaring their demands, overshadow feudal romance and patriarchal dreamy poetry. The city with its practical interests, the growing bourgeoisie, the incipient social struggle between it and the working class become the main content of English literature, and realism is its predominant form. Instead of a medieval castle - a factory town, instead of distant antiquity - a seething modern industrial life, instead of fantastic images of inventive imagination - an accurate, almost photographic, depiction of reality. Bulwer-Lytton [1803-1873], still continuing the traditions of romanticism, an aristocrat by birth, filling his novels with transformations, miracles and criminality, leaves us, however, a number of literary documents of social significance, depicts the process of impoverishment and decomposition of the nobility (novels - "Pelgam" , "Night and Morning", etc.).
Realism and the turn of the century
Charles Dickens
Dickens [1812-1870], the most famous writer of this era, develops a broad picture of the life of bourgeois-capitalist society in his famous novels: Hard Times, David Copperfield, Dombey and Son, The Pickwick Club, Nikolai Nickleby ”And others, creates a gallery of capitalist types.
Dickens's petty-bourgeois, humane, intellectual point of view prevents him from taking the side of the revolutionary part of the working class. He gives stunning pictures of dryness, greed, cruelty, ignorance and selfishness of the capitalists, but he writes to teach the exploiters and does not think about organizing the forces of the exploited. Its purpose is to touch human hearts with the spectacle of suffering, and not to awaken hatred and call for rebellion. More embittered, more sarcastic and cruel in his criticism of the noble-bourgeois society Thackeray [1811-1863], the author of the novels "Vanity Fair", "Pendennis". The author sees no way out. He is filled with pessimism and irritation. He, like Dickens, is unable to understand the liberating role of the incipient revolutionary labor movement. The petty-bourgeois thought, wavering as always between big capital and the workers' movement, sought compromising ways. Kingsley [1819-1875] in his novels Yeast and Alton Locke paints the horrors of exploitation and want, but sees salvation in Christian socialism, in the Spirit of God, in the repentant rich who turned to charitable causes. Disraeli [1805-1881], later the famous Lord Beaconsfield, the leader of the Tories (the novels "Sibylla" and others), depicting in vivid colors the vices of bourgeois-aristocratic society and the calamities of peasants and workers, speaks out negatively against the revolution and sees saviors in the person of energetic and active aristocrats who take upon themselves the task of organizing the people's welfare. Not only the novel, but also lyric poetry is inspired by social themes, and the main question raised by the era - the question of the exploitation of the working class by capital - is resolved in a spirit of vague humanity and moral improvement. Poets like Thomas Goode [1799-1845] or Ebenezer Elliot (see) [1781-1849], in their poems depict certain moments of the hard existence of workers and urban poverty, create songs against the laws of grain, give images of workers brought by poverty to prostitution and suicide. But their positive ideals also boil down to charity: to some lady who has comprehended her duty thanks to an edifying dream and who has dedicated her life to alleviating the plight of the poor.
The author who worked at that time, Lewis Carroll, who wrote the fairy tale Alice in Wonderland and Alice Through the Looking Glass, does not belong to the literature of realism.
As we approach the end of the XIX century. in European, in particular in English literature, the realistic and social direction begins to give way to the reviving ideas of individualism and aestheticism. Instead of militant capitalists who pave their way with struggle and energy, create enterprises, instead of Dombey and Gradgrines, those representatives of the bourgeoisie who received their capital by inheritance, did not go through the harsh school of life, who can enjoy the legacy of their fathers, became lovers and connoisseurs, are beginning to set the tone for literature. arts, buyers of expensive paintings and fine volumes of poetry. The literature of refined emotions and fleeting impressions is flourishing. Individualism, pure art, eroticism, the cult of sentiments are the hallmarks of late-century literature. True, the main theme of the era - the organization of society, the abolition of exploitation, the position of the working class - occupies a large place in literature, but socialism at the end of the century is also aesthetic socialism. John Ruskin [1819-1900] proceeds from the ideal of a beautiful life, calls society to the old patriarchal craft forms of production and rebelles against industrialism and capitalism. He inspires the school of artists known as the Pre-Raphaelites, among whom we see Rossetti [1828-1882] and William Morris [1834-1896], the author of the novels - John Pain's Dream and News from Nowhere, a defender of socialism and at the same time a passionate esthete who, together with Rosseti, was looking for the ideals of beauty in past centuries, who dreamed of causing a social revolution through the aesthetic education of workers. Next to the Pre-Raphaelites are Tennyson [1809-1892], the poet of pure art, free from the motives of social struggle, Robert Browning [1812-1889] and his wife Elizabeth Barrett Browning [1806-1861], Swinburne [1837-1909], in whose poetry vaguely intertwined ideals of eternal beauty and protection of the exploited. The most popular of the poets of this trend was Oscar Wilde [1854-1900], the "king of the aesthetes", in his "Conceptions" and in the novel "The Picture of Dorian Gray" who created the "religion of beauty" and the cult of liberating fiction, proclaiming the only reality of the creation of art, claiming that art creates life, and not vice versa.
The continuing growth of the industry introduces new topics in literature - urbanism, machinism. Literature becomes dynamic, satire develops against the capitalist way of life. Bernard Shaw [1856-1950] - the most brilliant and paradoxical of the satirical writers, the virtuoso of sophisms, the witty author of the hoax, the moderate socialist, intending, however, to improve the position of the workers with the help of the bourgeoisie. HG Wells [1866-1946] is the author of science fiction novels, imbued with the pathos of technology, depicting the wonders of an industry that magically transforms life, connects planets, and allows a person to transmigrate into the past and the future. This process of simultaneous growth of socialist tendencies and conservative-individualistic and aesthetic aspirations is accompanied by a number of diverse literary phenomena. Imperialism and chauvinism, which has its representative in the person of Chamberlain, the Boer War, the cult of Kitchener - all this finds its literary reflection in the work of Rudyard Kipling [1865-1936], the most talented of nationalist writers, author of colonial stories and poems, where the colonial the policy of England, where the oppression of backward peoples is glorified as the implementation of a great civilizing mission.
Another phenomenon is a reaction against machinism, causing a revival in literature of religious movements, impulses into the other world, theosophy, spiritualism, occultism, etc.
Already Samuel Butler [1835-1902] and George Meredith [1828-1909], so dissimilar to each other in other respects, however, they are doing a common cause, paving the way for spiritualism, trying to build a new religion on the foundations of modernity, using experience and research for this. We find traits of romantic symbolism in the work of Yeats [1865-1939], a representative of the so-called. "Celtic revival", and another of its representatives, also Irish, more inclined to realism and naturalism - Singh [1871-1909]. Another form of protest against machinism was Nietzscheanism, the cult of power and hypertrophied aestheticism, all those modernist ideas whose influence is not difficult to grasp not only in Oscar Wilde, but also in the work of Stevenson [1850-1894], the refined author of exemplary adventure novels, as well as George Moore [1852-1933], who spoke almost in the language of Zarathustra (in The Confessions of a Young Man) about his contempt for compassion and Christian morality, about the beauty of cruelty, the strength and beauty of crime.
This same hostility to the industrial age gave rise to a stream of pessimism in English literature among those writers who could not reconcile machinism with peace of mind. James Thomson [1834-1882] is one of the remarkable poets, through all his poetry, the main theme runs as a leitmotif - the torment of life, the gloomy grandeur of despair. The most popular and perhaps the most profound of the pessimists is Thomas Hardy [1848-1928], the creator of the grandiose dramatic epic "The Dynasty" and a number of novels, mainly from the life of the countryside and the provinces. A dark and evil fate, an incomprehensible case, a cruel inevitability, gravitates over the fate of a person, according to his teaching. The enemy of prejudice and modern marriage, which is oppressed by a woman, an enemy of civilization in the spirit of Rousseau or Tolstoy, Hardy does not find a way out of his thoughts tormenting him. The same pessimism is imbued with George Robert Gissing [1857-1903] - the everyday writer of the London lower class and starving literary bohemia, a disciple of Dickens, but devoid of his humor and his philanthropic faith, who expected nothing equally "from the philanthropy of the rich, nor from the uprising of the poor. The main tone of the works of Joseph Conrad [1857-1924] is also pessimistic. Konrad is one of the most powerful and complex writers of our time, striking in the richness and diversity of his language. He seeks to penetrate into the depths of human nature and use all means in order to convey the impression of the real to our consciousness: "the colorfulness of painting, the plasticity of sculpture and the magical effect of music." He paints all kinds of human suffering, he does not idealize a person, because he is convinced that ineradicable selfishness makes a person a wolf to another person. More everyday life and healthy realism in Arnold Bennett [1867-1931], a depiction of the morals of the lower strata of the provincial bourgeoisie, and more faithful social instinct in Galsworthy [1867-1933], who sees the source of social conflicts in the existence of private property. Chesterton [1874-1936] - an enemy of flabbiness, a preacher of activism, but activism of medieval corporations, a zealous Catholic, convinced that the development of industry is the source of social slavery. James Barry [1860-1937] - writer of Scottish peasants, Conan Doyle [1859-1930] - renowned author of historical and police novels, Robert Hichens [1864-1950] - satirist and romantic, Israel Zangville [1864-1926] - author of Children Ghetto ”, a writer of everyday life of the Jewish poor, and a number of others, less significant, complete the literary activity of the older group of modern writers. Clarence Rook [1862-1915] is the author of works about the life of the London poor, the working class.
The paths of the new generation have not yet been clearly outlined. In most cases, these are realists, who, however, are not averse to touching on the occult powers of the soul. After striving for clarity, leading its origin in French traditions, English literature experienced a period of strong Russian influence, ch. arr. Dostoevsky. This influence corresponds to amorphousness in the literature, a reaction against French plasticity. Hugh Walpole [1884-1941], one of the most fashionable novelists, easily follows fashion himself; Oliver Onions became famous for his trilogy, in which he describes bohemians, models, typists, poor artists, etc .; Gilbert Cannan [1884-1955], Compton McKenzie [1883-1972], Lawrence [1887-] and a number of other young writers currently attracting the attention of the English reader touch on a wide variety of topics, depict different classes of society, criticize social values, but their own worldview is most often reduced to a vague humanitarism. They are stronger in criticism than in their positive ideas, and so far none of them have managed to surpass the great "old men" like Shaw, Wells or Hardy.
Somerset Maugham is one of the greatest authors of the interwar and war period.
First edition of Ulysses by James Joyce (1922)
During the Second World War and later :
Angry young men
• Ackroyd, Peter
• Green, Graham
• Murdoch, Iris
• Golding, William N
• McEwan, Ian
• Barnes, Julian
• Burgess, Melvin
• Naipaul, Vidiadhar Surajprasad N
• Harold Pinter N
• Doris Lessing N
• Duffy, Stella
• Larkin, Philip
• Cope, Wendy
Dystopia:
• Huxley, Aldous
• Orwell, George
Detective:
• Christie, Agatha
Science fiction:
• Arthur Clarke
• Douglas Adams
• Christopher Priest
• John Wyndham
Fantasy:
• John Tolkien
• Pratchett, Terry
• Joanne Rowling