Mining Industry

Mining Industry

Mining is a site-specific economic activity creating wealth from the extraction of nonrenewable resources from land and sea. The boundaries of the mining industry are imprecise. It conventionally excludes oil, gas, and water, but coal and uranium are normally included. Bulk construction materials and stone are extracted in the same fashion as other minerals, and the volume of their output exceeds that of most other minerals, but they are usually excluded from definitions of the industry. The downstream boundaries are somewhat indeterminate, depending on processes, corporate structure and end uses. Mines usually produce ores that require further processing rather than finished products and the ores may contain one or several economic products. The usable materials are often a small proportion of the ore mined. There are various methods of mining, each suited to the specific circumstances of each mineral deposit, and each with different cost structures. Most minerals are either extracted from open workings in which the overburden is first stripped away to expose the economic ore, or from underground workings that access the ore through shafts or tunnels. Substantial volumes of waste are mined as well as ores, particularly in open pit mines producing base and precious metals.

GLOBAL FEATURES

Ore deposits are not evenly distributed around the globe, with different minerals concentrated in specific geological environments. Typically, deposits located near major centers of industry and population have been depleted and mines are increasingly concentrated in more remote regions. Transport costs are a major determinant of competitiveness, and reductions in shipping costs since the mid-twentieth century have internationalized the markets for many products, like coal and iron ore, that formerly served regional or local markets. The European Union, Japan, and the United States have become increasingly dependent on imports, either of mineral raw materials, or of semi-processed products, to supply their requirements. The fast developing countries of the Asian Pacific Rim are also heavily reliant on imports of minerals. Economic growth in the latter region, combined with rapidly rising demand from China, is putting renewed pressure on mineral supplies. China has by far the world’s largest minerals industry, accounting for about 12 percent of global minerals turnover, excluding coal, and nearly 18 percent, including coal. Many, but by no means all, of its mines are antiquated, undercapitalized, small-scale operations with poor environmental and health and safety records.

Most minerals and their first-stage products are traded internationally at prices determined in global markets. Shifts in exchange rates and domestic economic policies thus influence an individual mine’s ability to compete. The amount of usable product contained in ore, its ease of processing, and accessibility are the main endogenous determinants of competitiveness. Energy is a large element of costs, so that rising oil prices have an adverse impact. Economies of scale are important, and the typical scale of operations has risen considerably over the past fifteen years. Many small mines have closed down, and larger mines have expanded, so that the number of mining operations has contracted. Technical change and rising productivity have also driven down costs.

Labor costs are relatively unimportant in many mines, although U.S. companies are often burdened by large legacy costs. Organized mining accounts for much less than 1 percent of the world’s workforce—fewer than 15 million people, with a further 11.5 to 13 million people working in small-scale mines. According to the International Labor Office, the total number of people relying on mining, both large and small, for a living, taking dependents into account, is about 300 million, of which up to one-third depend on small-scale mining. The numbers have fallen markedly since the 1980s with the closure of many small mines and improving productivity, especially in China. There is a growing global shortage of skilled and professional labor, because of a rundown in mining education and a lack of new entrants.

LABOR CONDITIONS AND STATE OF THE INDUSTRY

Mines are only located where there are viable ore deposits, and these are often in physically remote areas, far from major population centers. The modern tendency is for workers to commute to mine sites for extended shift periods of up to a month, from well-established communities with good infrastructure and social amenities. Before the development of low-cost air travel such commuting was seldom possible and dedicated mining camps were often established to house the workers, not always with their families. Such communities were natural breeding grounds for the social ills of alcohol abuse and prostitution. They also insulated workers from outside influences and fostered their solidarity. That was enhanced by the arduous and dangerous nature of mining, particularly when underground. Even minor grievances, real or imagined, could be blown up out of proportion. The conditions were ideal for periodic labor unrest and trade union militancy. Moreover, miners in rural areas could live cheaply, especially in the summer months when there were alternative agricultural, hunting, or fishing opportunities. That remains true in some regions, such as parts of Canada.

In practice union membership and militancy have not been significantly greater in most of the mining industry than in other sectors of economic activity. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, in the United States, for example, the 8 percent of workers in the mining industry that belong to a union compare with 7.8 percent for the private sector as a whole, 13 percent in manufacturing, and 36.5 percent in government. When strikes did occur, however, they were often longer and more acrimonious than elsewhere. The cyclical nature of most mineral markets contributed in that regard, as it still does. Workers naturally seek to increase their earnings when markets are buoyant, as in 2005 and 2006, and are more prepared to strike than when markets are depressed. At such periods employers aim to reduce their labor costs. Today that will be achieved mainly through agreed redundancies. Historically, however, wages were cut, with or without prior consultation with employees. Some of the most bitter and most prolonged strikes resulted from such actions, for example in the U.S. and U.K. coal industries during the late 1920s and 1930s. In North America a tradition of labor contracts covering three- to five-year periods even today may prompt strikes at their renewal, in the copper and nickel industries for example. In neither sector has there been any to compare in recent years with those of the 1960s.

tog'-kon sanoati

Mining quruqlik va dengizdan tiklanmaydigan resurslarni qazib olishga boylik yaratish sayt maxsus iqtisodiy faoliyat hisoblanadi. tog'-kon sanoati chegaralari aniq emas bo'ladi. Bu shartli neft, gaz va suv istisno, lekin ko'mir va uran odatda kiritilgan. Sochiluvchi qurilish materiallari va tosh boshqa minerallar bir xil moda Etil qilinadi va ulardan ishlab chiqarish hajmi eng boshqa minerallarning qildim oshadi, lekin ular odatda sanoati ta'riflar chiqarib tashlandi. mansap chegaralari jarayonlar, korporativ tuzilishi va end foydalanishga qarab, bir oz noaniq bo'ladi. Konlari Odatda rudasi keyingi ishlov berish o'rniga tayyor mahsulot talab edi va rudasi bir yoki bir necha iqtisodiy mahsulotlarini o'z ichiga olishi mumkin ishlab chiqarish. foydalanish mumkin materiallari o'ta qazib ruda kichik nisbati bor. tog'-kon turli usullar, turli xil iqtisodiy tuzilmalari bilan har bir, har bir mineral depozit muayyan sharoitlarga mos, va har bir mavjud. Eng minerallar yo yuk birinchi iqtisodiy javhari fosh yulib, yoki er osti ishlanmalarini kirish Miller yoki tunnel orqali javhari qildim bo'lgan ochiq ishlanmalarini chiqariladi. chiqindilarni katta hajmi ayniqsa bazasini va qimmatbaho metallar ishlab chiqarish ochiq usulda qazib olish bilan, ruda, shuningdek qazib qilinadi.

GLOBAL xususiyatlari

Javhar yotoqlari teng xos geologik muhitda jamlangan turli minerallar bilan, butun dunyo bo'ylab tarqalgan emas. Odatda, sanoat va aholining asosiy markazlari yaqinida joylashgan konlari yaroqsiz qilingan va konlari tobora ko'proq chekka hududlarda jamlangan. Transport xarajatlari Raqobat asosiy mezondir, va o'rta-XX asrdan beri yuk zararlar tushirilishi, ko'mir va temir rudasini kabi, avval, mintaqaviy yoki mahalliy bozorlarga xizmat edi, ko'p mahsulotlar uchun bozorlarga xalqaro qilgan. Yevropa Ittifoqi, Yaponiya va Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Ularning talablari ta'minlash uchun, tobora mineral xomashyo yo, importga qaram, yoki yarim qayta ishlangan mahsulotlari aylangan. Osiyo Tinch okeani, deyarli rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlar minerallar importiga shuning og'ir ishongan bor. Xitoy tez ortib borayotgan talabni bilan birga oxirgi viloyatida iqtisodiy o'sish, mineral yetkazib yanada yaqqolroq bosim bo'ladi. Xitoy ko'mir, shu jumladan global aylanmasi qazilmalarni taxminan 12 foiz tashqari ko'mir, va qariyb 18 foizga, buxgalteriya, uzoq dunyodagi yirik yirik minerallar sanoatda tomonidan mavjud. Ko'pchilik, lekin hamma uning minalar hech vositalari kambag'al atrof-muhit va sog'liqni saqlash va xavfsizlik yozuvlar bilan eskirgan, undercapitalized, kichik ko'lamli amaliyotlar bo'ladi tomonidan.

Eng minerallar va ularning birinchi bosqichli mahsulotlari global bozorlarda qazib deterministik narxlarda xalqaro kotirovka qilinadi. valyuta kurslari va ichki iqtisodiy siyosatida o'zgarishlar raqobatlasha individual shaxtaning qobiliyatiga Shunday qilib, ta'sir yugurdi. ruda tarkibidagi foydalanish mumkin mahsulot miqdori, qayta ishlash, uning qulaylik, va mavjudlik endogen raqobatbardoshlikni asosiy hal bo'ladi. ortib borayotgan neft bahosi salbiy ta'siri bor edi, deb energiya, xarajatlarning katta elementi hisoblanadi. o'lchab iqtisodiyotiga doir muhim, va operatsiyalar odatda ko'lamli o'tgan o'n besh yil ichida sezilarli darajada oshdi. Ko'plab kichik konlari yopildi va katta konlari kengaytirdik, shuning uchun kon operatsiyalari soni tor bo'ldi qildim. Texnik o'zgarishlar va ortib hosildorlik, shuning xarajatlarini pastga gijgijlash.

AQSh kompaniyalari o'ta katta meros xarajatlar qiynalayaptilarmi da mehnat xarajatlari, ko'p minalar nisbatan ahamiyatsiz bo'ladi. kichik konlarda ishlayotgan 11,5 yanada million 13 odamlar bilan, dunyodagi kadrlar-kam 15 million odamlar ko'p kamida 1 foiz uchun kon hisob tashkil etildi. kichik tog'-kon bog'liq uchdan bir qadar bo'lgan hisobga qaramog'ida olib, bir hayot uchun, Xalqaro Mehnat Byurosining, katta va kichik, har ikki tog'-kon tayanib odamlar, umumiy sonining ko'ra, taxminan 300 mln. raqamlari, bir qancha kichik minalar va takomillashtirish unumdorligi yopilishi bilan 1980 yildan buyon sezilarli tushib kerak Xitoyda, ayniqsa, yaxshi ko'raman. malakali va professional mehnat borayotgan bir global taqchilligi Chunki kon ta'lim bir vayrona va yangi Abiturientlar bir yo'qligi, bor.

Mehnat sharoitlari, ularga SANOAT DAVLAT

Konlari yashovchan ruda konlari bor faqat qaerda joylashgan, va tezroq uzoq yirik aholi markazlari, jismonan uzoq joylarda tez-tez bo'ladi. ishchilari yaxshi infratuzilmasi va ijtimoiy qulayliklar bilan yaxshi tashkil jamoalar bir oy qadar kengaytirilgan shift davrlarida uchun koni saytlarga borib zamonaviy tendentsiya hisoblanadi. kamdan-kam mumkin va maxsus kon lagerlar o'ta oilalari bilan har doim emas, ishchilarni uy tashkil etildi arzon havo sayohat qidirish commuting rivojlantirish oldin. Web jamoalar spirtli ichimliklarni suiiste'mol va fohishalik ijtimoiy sharridan uchun tabiiy naslchilik asoslar edi. Bas, ular tashqi ta'sirlardan ishchilar izolyatsiya va birdam yetishtirayotir. Bu, ayniqsa, qachon yer osti, qazib olish qiyin va xavfli tabiat tomonidan ishlab chiqildi. Hatto kichik shikoyat, real yoki tasavvurdagi, mutanosib chiqishi puflandi mumkinmi. sharoitlar davriy laboratoriya beqarorlik va kasaba uyushma ekstremizmning uchun ideal edi. Bundan tashqari, qishloq joylarda konchilari ayniqsa muqobil qishloq xo'jaligi, ovchilik, baliq ovlash yoki imkoniyatlar edi Whenthere yoz oylarida, arzon sevgi yashaydi mumkin. Bu Kanada qismlari sifatida ko'rib, ba'zi hududlarda, haqiqiy qoladi.

amaliyot uyushmasi a'zoligiga va ekstremizmning iqtisodiy faoliyatning boshqa sohalarida nisbatan kon sanoatining eng muhim darajada katta emas. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarida Mehnat statistikasi byurosining, ko'ra, masalan, tog'-kon sanoatida ishchilar 8 foiz, bir butun sifatida xususiy sektori uchun 7,8 foiz, ishlab chiqarish 13 foizga, va 36,5 foiz bilan solishtirish bir ittifoq tegishli edi hukumatidagi. tashlashlar kallangga Biroq, theywere o'ta uzoq va boshqa joylarda ko'proq jahldor. eng mineral bozorlar davriy tabiati u hali kabi, hisobga dass hissa qo'shgan. bozorlar, 2005 va 2006-yilda bo'lib, suzib yuruvchi va bozorlar tushkunlikka Qachon ortiq urishni ko'proq tayyor bo'lgach Ishchilar tabiiy Ularning daromad oshirish talab. ko'rib davrlarda ish beruvchilar, ularning mehnat xarajatlarini kamaytirish niyatidamiz. Bugun thatwill alayh ishdan orqali Asosan Erishilgan qilinadi. Tarixan, LEKIN, ish haqi yoki xodimlari bilan oldindan maslahat holda, kesilgan. eng achchiq va eng uzoq tashlashlar ba'zi AQShda va Buyuk Britaniyaning masalan izlab harakatlar, natijasida kech 1920 va 1930 davomida ko'mir sanoati. Shimoliy Amerikada bugungi kunda ham besh yillik davrlar uchun uch qamrab mehnat shartnomalari an'anaga masalan mis va nikel sanoatida, ularning yangilanish paytda tashlashlar murojaat qilishi mumkin. na sohasida 1960 yilning Ana bilan so'nggi yillarda solishtirish uchun hech qanday bor edi.