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T H E O R I E S O F M I N D R E A D I N G B E Y O N D B E L I E F
In the philosophical literature on folk psychology, several people have articulated more comprehensive views of how
we understand and interact with others. Notably, Andrews (2012) has argued that we have many different methods
for understanding others. We employ stereotypes, character traits, and social scripts to make sense of others
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behavior and anticipate what they will do next. On her view, we use belief and desire attributions only in rare cases to
explain anomalous behavior. The main focus of her project is to argue that humans (and sometimes other species) use
methods other than belief and desire attribution to understand others. She is not particularly concerned with con-
structing a
general
,
unified
theory of all these methods for understanding others.
Zawidzki (2013), whose work also falls into the pluralistic folk psychology category, offers a general, unified
account of our various modes of understanding others. On his account, our folk psychological practices primarily
aim at what he calls
mindshaping
rather than mindreading.
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Mindshaping comes in the form of imitation, pedagogy,
conformity to norms, attribution of traits, narrative self
‐
constitution, etc. By attributing traits and mental states to
others, we are attempting to make others' minds more coherent and more predictable, which enables cooperation,
the development of tools and language, and even mindreading. Like Andrews, Zawidzki holds that attributing beliefs
and desires in order simply to explain and predict behavior is rare. On this view, the main function of our social prac-
tices is to get ourselves and others to conform to certain ways of thinking and behaving to facilitate cooperative
engagement. In other words, mindshaping is the function of most of our social practices.
Fiebich and Coltheart (2015) offer a distinct account of pluralistic folk psychology. Fiebich and Coltheart's
account is based on a two
‐
systems account of cognition. On their view, System 1 processes consisting of fast and
automatic associations and intuitive heuristics underlie one method of explaining and predicting behavior, and
System 2 processes consisting of verbal judgments, structured thoughts, and reasoning about others' behavior and
mental states underlie another method for explaining and predicting behavior. These methods are cognitively distinct,
and which method we use depends on which method is cognitively least effortful for an individual in a given context.
Unlike Andrews's account, Fiebich and Coltheart's account is a general, unified theory of when and how we use the
various methods of for understanding others' behavior, and unlike Zawidzki's account they do not attempt to fold all
of the methods into one function. This view holds that our social practices can serve as tools for either explanation or
prediction. Fiebich and Coltheart make no mention of using our social practices for mindshaping, social regulation, or
moralizing.
Westra (2017a, 2017d) gives a very different type of account of the role of character traits and stereotypes in
mindreading. On Westra's view, character traits and stereotypes are not alternatives to attributing belief and desires,
like they are on most pluralistic folk psychology views. Instead, Westra sees these cognitive phenomena as playing
an important role
in
mindreading. More specifically, he articulates a hierarchical predictive coding model of action
prediction wherein stereotypes and trait attribution lie at the upper
‐
level of the action
‐
prediction hierarchy,
informing and constraining cognitive processes at lower levels, and mental state attributions lie on the lower
‐
end,
generating specific behavioral predictions. Traits and stereotypes are general in the sense that they do not, on their
own, yield any specific predictions about what someone is going to do in a certain context. However, traits and
stereotypes do delimit the range of behavior we expect to see. The rapid attribution of, say, dishonesty narrows
the predictive hypotheses we entertain. We are likely to consider hypotheses that make sense of seemingly dishon-
est behavior. The remaining hypotheses are furthered winnowed based on information from the situational context
(e.g., whether the subject is alone or in a crowd of people) and active updating on the basis of incoming information.
These processes bottom out in mental state inferences that, unlike the higher
‐
level processes, predict specific
behaviors.
A few distinctive characteristics of Westra's view are worth noting. First, it is a defense of the idea that we reg-
ularly attribute beliefs and desires, unlike pluralistic folk psychology views. Second, Westra's account focuses only on
explanation for the purpose of prediction. This feature also departs from most pluralistic folk psychology accounts.
With a bit of work, one could show how the hierarchical predictive coding sub
‐
serves other functions, like social
regulation, manipulation, and moralizing. Third, this view does not regard the attribution of stereotypes and character
traits as an alternative to mindreading but rather a part of the implementation of mindreading. Finally, Westra's
view is not committed to a stark divide between two systems of cognition, unlike Fiebich and Coltheart's
account.
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On Westra's view, the automatic associations underlying stereotypes can and do influence deliberative
mindreading processes.
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Finally, I shall lay out an account of mindreading that I articulate and argue for in a new book (Spaulding, 2018).
The aim of the book is to argue that mindreading is much more complicated, diverse, messy, and interesting than the
traditional mindreading literature indicates, and in order for theorizing about mindreading to be empirically adequate
we need a broad, comprehensive conception of mindreading that represents this complexity and diversity. The view I
argue for in the book is called Model Theory. See Spaulding (2018, p. Ch. 5) for a more detailed analysis and defense
of Model Theory.
In general, Model Theory conceives of mindreading as a form of modeling. Models are simplified representations
of more complex phenomena. More specifically, they are hypothetical representations that specify a general struc-
ture, relations, and properties of some phenomenon. Model Theory holds that mindreading consists in constructing
and applying simplified model psychological profiles of targets in order to understand complex social interactions.
There is a basic folk psychological model, which consists in a distinction between beliefs and desires, the idea of
sensory input and behavioral output, and characteristic dependence of action on perceptions, memories, goals, and
temptations (Godfrey
‐
Smith, 2005, p. 10; Maibom, 2009). Elements of this core folk psychological model likely are
innately specified, which would explain why basic aspects of folk psychology appear to be common across cultures
(Malle, 2008).
The core folk psychological model may be elaborated in various ways. Over time and with experience, we incor-
porate into our folk psychological models knowledge of different kinds of social norms, institutions, and social roles,
individualized knowledge about a particular person's history and personality, knowledge of stereotypes, social biases,
moral norms, etc. Elements can be introduced to a folk psychological model by explicit teaching, implicit learning,
automatic cognitive processing, knowledge from one's own experiences, etc.
Folk psychological models can be more or less elaborate, ranging from mere schema we generate on the fly to
detailed representations of individuals and social groups. The models may be explicit and deployed deliberately,
but they need not be. The models may be tacit, and the agent using them may not be able to articulate the exact
features of the model.
The foregoing discussion demonstrates the diversity of folk psychological models, but how we employ folk
psychological models varies as well. We put models to different uses depending on our interests and the context.
If something important hangs on mindreading correctly, if it matters to us personally, or if the situation is highly
unusual, we use more detailed models for the purpose of accurately modeling the other person's mental states.
We may use this model to explain a target's behavior, make predictions, manipulate the target's behavior, or all of
the above, depending on our interests in the situation.
In cases where efficiency matters more to us than accuracy, we use more schematic models so that we can get a
good
‐
enough estimate of what the target thinks. Which schematic model we use depends on whether the person we
are mindreading is perceived to be part of an in
‐
group or an out
‐
group. In the former case, we tend to use models
roughly based on what we think we would think, feel, and do in various situations. In the latter case, our model will
be based on relevant stereotypes. We may use these schematic models to categorize the target, explain behavior, or
make predictions, depending on our interests.
When our motives are more self
‐
serving, what varies is not so much the kind of model or the level of
elaboration of the model but how we use it to cement preconceived ideas about ourselves, our in
‐
group, and
various out
‐
groups. In these cases, the elements of the model heavily emphasize patterns of behavior in line
with our existing values and beliefs. Typically, in such cases, the model is used to explain a target's behavior
—
in order to justify, rationalize, condemn, or dismiss it
—
rather than predict or manipulate the target's behavior
(Knobe, 2010).
Model Theory distinguishes the models from how we use the models. The models themselves exhibit a great deal
of variety based on which elements are introduced, how they are introduced, and how elaborate they are. In addition
to the variety in model construction, the models can be employed differently as well. In other words, the very same
model may be used to categorize behavior, confirm a stereotype, or make rough
‐
and
‐
ready predictions about what a
target will do. Moreover, we can change our focus to a different model of a target if our goals or understanding of the
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situation change more dramatically. We can use models in various ways and shift to different more appropriate
models if the situation calls for it.
Model Theory, as I articulate it, is compatible with the pluralistic folk psychological idea that we have many
different tools for understanding and interacting with others. However, unlike Andrews' and Zawidzki's views, Model
Theory holds that we cannot clearly pull apart mental state attributions from things like stereotypes, social biases,
and character trait inferences. These are all messily intertwined in real
‐
life social interactions. Further, explanation,
prediction, regulation, manipulation, and moralizing often are jumbled together. Moreover, unlike the accounts of
Zawidzki, Fiebich and Coltheart, and Westra, my view holds that our social practices serve more than just one or
two functions. Depending on the context and our goals, we may employ these tools to explain, predict, categorize,
rationalize, condemn, or manipulate.
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This completes the survey of more comprehensive accounts of mindreading. The presentation of the accounts
here is limited by space, but one can clearly see the lines of research developing in this new school of thought about
mindreading. In the next section, I briefly sketch a few exciting applications of these broader conceptions of
mindreading.
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