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participative work style. Male leaders in contrast, were identified as being more



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participative work style. Male leaders in contrast, were identified as being more 
autocratic and directive (Middlehurst  1997:5-6). 
 
Robbins et al (2001:89) describe a study which “showed that the culture of South African 
male leaders focuses more on performance, competition and winning, domination, 
control and directive leadership”, whereas that of female managers emphasised 
collaboration, intuition, empowerment, self-disclosure and subtle forms of control. 
Robbins et al (2001) and other researchers such as Jones (1997) and Bass(1998) concur 
that the female approach to leadership exhibits higher levels of transformational 
leadership behaviour. In her study of the leadership development of African-American 
women college presidents in 1991, Jones found that when respondents were asked to 
describe their leadership style or their approach to leadership, they used concepts and 
terms that were related to participative management, empowerment, team-building, 


 
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vision creation and hands-on supervision, all of which indicate a more transformational 
than transactional leadership approach. 
 
Bass (1998) contends that the tendency of women in leadership positions  is somewhat 
more transformational than their male counterparts.  Evidence from a New Zealand 
survey of two samples of leaders using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire(MLQ) 
found that women were rated higher for transformational leadership than their male 
counterparts. Other evidence gathered using the MLQ from four investigations between 
1986 and 1992  supports the conclusion, according to Bass(1998:74), that  “women 
display more transformational and less transactional leadership” than males. Women are 
also more likely to structure flat organisations and to emphasise frequent contact and 
sharing of information (Bass 1998). Bass gives various explanations for the male-female 
differences in transformational leadership (Bass 1998:77-8): 
 
• 
differences may be due to the tendency for women to be more nurturing 
• 
women tend to be more understanding of the needs of their followers and 
attempt to develop them to higher levels 
• 
women tend to be more sensitive or ‘feeling’ – more interested in others than 
their male counterparts and more socially sensitive 
• 
women highlight responsibility and care when reasoning morally, whereas 
men highlight rights and justice 
• 
women tend to be less self-serving and authoritarian than men. 
 
In the climate of transformation in higher education management, cultures, as well as 
organisational structures feminine qualities are being increasingly appreciated. Although 
male values of management and leadership still dominate in organisations (Middlehurst 
1997), womanly merits are growing in importance as organisations now emphasise team-
work, participation and empowerment of others. Feminine qualities “are congruent with 
some of the dominant values of the academic culture” (Middlehurst 1997:9). It seems 
therefore that contemporary management and leadership roles are highly suited to women 
because they have family-style skills of mutual trust and tolerance along with good 
communication skills (Walton 1997:81). It looks as if a more feminine approach to 


 
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leadership is required by today’s flatter organisational structures which emphasise female 
qualities of caring and concern for others. Bass(1998:79) thinks that as “women maybe 
better suited for the organisational culture of the 1990’s and beyond…we are likely to see 
rising numbers reaching higher levels of leadership and command…women are achieving 
parity with men in middle management positions.”  Good modern management as 
opposed to the “old macho management styles of the past generation” ought to be 
replaced with “creativity, communication, vision, symbolism and even love” (Walton 
1997:81). Helgesen (2003) sees the ideals of leadership as the traditional ‘lone hero’ 
being increasingly replaced by a new kind of managerialism which values a combination 
of efficiency and humaneness. Women’s leadership qualities and their propensity to be 
good communicators, to have good relationship skills, to be active and analytic listeners 
and negotiators define the new order. According to Helgesen (2003:33), they “will create 
an environment that meets the needs of the people who work today”. 
 
Since leadership in the academe is increasingly dependent on team work, the challenge 
for those in management and leadership roles is to become an “effective team leader”. In 
the words of Robbins et al (1997:255), managers “ have to learn skills such as patience
to share information, to trust others, to give up authority, and to understand when to 
intervene”. However, many leaders are not equipped to handle the change to teams. It is 
not unreasonable therefore to conclude that the age old tendency to “control” is to blame 
for  this  inability.    It  might  also  be    safe  to  assume  that  male  managers  are  more  likely 
than female managers to find it difficult to relinquish the “control and command” type of 
leadership in favour of the softer skills and values which are believed to be in demand in 
contemporary  management. In academic organisations, the ‘command and control’ 
models of leadership have little or no importance as there are other more suitable models 
to substitute or neutralise this model (Middlehurst 1993). Robbins et al give a summary 
of the differences between male and female leadership styles:   
 
Women tend to use a more democratic leadership style. They encourage participation, 
share power and information, and attempt to enhance followers’ self-worth. They 
prefer to lead through inclusion and rely on their charisma, expertise, contacts, and 
interpersonal skills to influence others. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to use 


 
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a directive command-and-control style. They rely on the formal authority of their 
managerial position for their influence base. 
 
In today’s organisations, flexibility, teamwork, trust and information sharing are 
replacing rigid structures, competitive individualism, control, and secrecy. The best 
leaders listen, motivate, and provide support to their people. And many women seem 
to do these things better than men.  …The leadership styles women typically use can 
make them better at negotiating… (Robbins et al 2001:254).  

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