Microsoft Word 2007 ichrie conference Proceedings Final-Final 06-06-07. doc

 
2007 Annual International CHRIE Conference & Exposition 
374
LITERATURE REVIEW 
The effects of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 were felt worldwide. The WTO reported that 
2001 was the first year since 1982 to experience a decrease in world-wide tourist arrivals (WTO, 2002). Subsequent 
events, such as the terror bombings in Bali and Spain, and the onset of the global war against terrorists and the 
regimes that shelter them, suggest that the world of the early 21
st
century will be one where the threat of terrorism is 
a constant. One way to conceptualize the impact of terror and the threat of terrorism on travelers is through the 
framework supplied by hazards research. The literature on hazards addresses human response to natural disasters 
such as floods and hurricanes, as well as human response to man-made situations such as chemical spills, nuclear 
plant mishaps, terrorism, etc. There is agreement on the basic model that describes how people respond to these 
threats (Burton, Kates & White, 1978; Palm, 1990; Tobin & Montz, 1997). These models agree that when faced 
with a hazard people can: deny that the risk exists; passively accept the risk, adopting a fatalistic view, attributing 
their fate to powers beyond their control; or respond to the hazard. Response entails two separate sets of strategies: 
(1) mitigation strategies attempt to minimize the probability of the hazard’s occurrence, and (2) loss reduction 
strategies attempt to minimize the cost of the hazard when it occurs.
The trigger to this process is an individual’s perception of risk. These perceptions are a function of the 
nature of the hazard, individual and societal structural factors such as proximity to the hazard, empowerment, social 
networks, culture, political structures, wealth distribution, etc., and individual traits such as gender, age, ethnicity, 
previous experience, psychological factors, etc. Much of this literature also notes the lack of congruence between 
objective measures of risk and an individual’s perceptions of risk. The probability of some types of risk, for 
example nuclear accidents, are over-rated while other types of risk, such as hurricanes, floods, and car accidents, are 
under-rated (
cf
Slovic, 1987). Personal experience with a threat also correlates with assessment of the likelihood of 
that threat and behavior in the presence of that threat (Laska, 1990; Tobin & Montz, 1997). 
Media is a major source of information about crises in various destinations for both tourists and tourism 
organizations, and the primary basis of their travel-related and operational decisions (Wang, Racherla, & Hu, 2007). 
Researchers have recognized the importance of media in crisis management and argued that media’s perspectives on 
crisis situations can either mitigate or impede a tourism crisis (Faulkner, 2001; Keown-McMullan, 1997). Being a 
tourist on vacation also appears to play a situational role in influencing risk perception and behavioral response 
(Drabek, 1996; 1999). In studies of tourist and business travelers visiting destinations impacted by hurricanes, 
Drabek found that the chronological phase of the trip in which the traveler found himself or herself and the type of 
lodging being used moderated the perception of, and response to, hurricane danger. Specifically, people at early 
stages of their visit were less likely to evacuate than were people at later stages of their trip. People staying in 
commercial lodging were more likely to heed warnings than were people staying with friends or family members. 

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