2.1
INTRODUCTION
Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over the complete process
will determine the quantities of raw materials required and products produced. Balances over
individual process units set the process stream flows and compositions, and provide the basic
equations for sizing equipment.
A good understanding of material balance calculations is essential in process design. In this chapter
the fundamentals of the subject are covered, using simple examples to illustrate each topic. Practice is
needed to develop expertise in handling what can often become very involved calculations. More
examples and a more detailed discussion of the subject can be found in the numerous specialist
books written on material and energy balance computations. Several suitable texts are listed under
the heading of “Further Reading” at the end of this chapter.
For complex processes, material balances are usually completed using process simulation software, as
described in
Chapter 4
. Significant time and effort can be wasted in process simulation if the fundamentals
of material and energy balances are not properly understood. Careful attention must be paid to selecting the
best basis and boundaries for material and energy balances, to prediction of yields, and to understanding
recycle, purge and bypass schemes. Short hand calculations, of the type illustrated in this chapter, should
always be used to check process simulation results. Short calculations can also be used to accelerate
convergence of flowsheet simulations by providing good initial estimates of recycle and make-up streams.
Material balances are also useful tools for the study of plant operation and trouble shooting. They
can be used to check performance against design; to extend the often limited data available from the
plant instrumentation; to check instrument calibrations; and to locate sources of material loss. Material
balances are essential to obtaining high quality data from laboratory or pilot plants.
2.2
THE EQUIVALENCE OF MASS AND ENERGY
Einstein showed that mass and energy are equivalent. Energy can be converted into mass, and mass into
energy. They are related by Einstein’s equation:
E
¼
mc
2
(2.1)
where
E
¼
energy, J,
m
¼
mass, kg,
c
¼
the speed of light
in vacuo
, 3
10
8
m/s.
The loss of mass associated with the production of energy is significant only in nuclear reactions.
Energy and matter are always considered to be separately conserved in chemical reactions.
2.3
CONSERVATION OF MASS
The general conservation equation for any process system can be written as:
Material out
¼
Material in
þ
Generation
Consumption
Accumulation
48
CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES
For a steady-state process the accumulation term is zero. Except in nuclear processes, mass is
neither generated nor consumed; but if a chemical reaction takes place a particular chemical
species may be formed or consumed in the process. If there is no chemical reaction the steady-
state balance reduces to
Material out
¼
Material in
A balance equation can be written for each separately identifiable species present, elements,
compounds or radicals; and for the total material. Balances can be written for mass or for
number of moles.
EXAMPLE 2.1
2000 kg of a 5% slurry of calcium hydroxide in water is to be prepared by diluting a 20% slurry. Calculate the quantities
required. The percentages are by weight.
Solution
Let the unknown quantities of the 20% slurry and water be
X
and
Y
respectively.
Material balance on Ca(OH)
2
In
Out
X
20
100
¼
2000
5
100
ð
a
Þ
Balance on water
X
100
20
ð
Þ
100
þ
Y
¼
2000
100
5
ð
Þ
100
ð
b
Þ
From equation
(
a
)
,
X
¼
500 kg.
Substituting into equation
(
b
)
gives
Y
¼
1500kg
Check material balance on total quantity:
X
þ
Y
¼
2000
500
þ
1500
¼
2000, correct
2.4
UNITS USED TO EXPRESS COMPOSITIONS
When specifying a composition as a percentage it is important to state clearly the basis: weight, molar
or volume.
The abbreviations w/w, wt% and %wt are used for mass (weight) basis. Volume basis is usually
abbreviated vol%, LV% or v/v.
EXAMPLE 2.2
Technical grade hydrochloric acid has a strength of 28% w/w, express this as a mole fraction.
Solution
Basis of calculation 100 kg of 28% w/w acid.
49
2.4
UNITS USED TO EXPRESS COMPOSITIONS
Molecular mass
:
water 18, HCl 36
:
5
Mass HC1
¼
100
0
:
28
¼
28kg
Mass water
¼
100
0
:
72
¼
72kg
kmol HC1
¼
28
36
:
5
¼
0
:
77
kmol water
¼
72
18
¼
4
:
00
Total mols
¼
4
:
77
mol fraction HC1
¼
0
:
77
4
:
77
¼
0
:
16
mol fraction water
¼
4
:
00
4
:
77
¼
0
:
84
Check total
1
:
00
Within the accuracy needed for technical calculations, volume fractions can be taken as equivalent
to mole fractions for gases, up to moderate pressures (say 25 bar).
Trace quantities are often expressed as parts per million (ppm). The basis, weight or volume, needs
to be stated, for example, ppmw or ppmv.
ppm
¼
quantity of component
total quantity
10
6
Note
. 1 ppm
¼
10
4
percent.
Minute quantities are sometimes quoted in ppb, parts per billion. This refers to an American billion
(10
9
), not a UK billion (10
12
).
2.5
STOICHIOMETRY
The stoichiometric equation for a chemical reaction states unambiguously the number of molecules of
the reactants and products that take part; from which the quantities can be calculated. The equation
must balance.
With simple reactions it is usually possible to balance the stoichiometric equation by inspection, or
by trial and error calculations. If difficulty is experienced in balancing complex equations, the problem
can always be solved by writing a balance for each element present. The procedure is illustrated in
Example 2.3.
EXAMPLE 2.3
Write out and balance the overall equation for the manufacture of vinyl chloride from ethylene, chlorine and oxygen.
Solution
Method
: write out the equation using letters for the unknown number of molecules of each reactant and product. Make a
balance on each element. Solve the resulting set of equations.
A C
2
H
4
ð
Þþ
B Cl
2
ð
Þ þ
C O
2
ð Þ ¼
D C
2
H
3
Cl
ð
Þþ
E H
2
O
ð
Þ
50
CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES
KIRISH
Material balanslari jarayonni loyihalashning asosi hisoblanadi. Butun
jarayon uchun moddiy balans olinadi va zarur xomashyo va ishlab chiqarilgan
mahsulotlar miqdori aniqlanadi. Alohida texnologik birliklar jarayon oqimlarining
oqimlari va tarkibini o'rnatadi va uskunalarni o'lchash uchun tenglamalardan
foydalanadi.
Jarayonni loyihalashda moddiy balansni hisoblashni yaxshi tushunish juda
muhimdir. Ushbu bobda har bir mavzuni tasvirlash uchun oddiy misollar
yordamida mavzuning asoslarini qamrab oladi. Amaliyotda ko'pincha juda
murakkab hisob-kitoblarga foydalanishi mumkin bo'lgan qayta ishlash bo'yicha
tajribani rivojlantirish uchun zarur. Ko'proq misollar va mavzu bo'yicha batafsil
muhokama ko'plab moddiy va energiya balansi ixtisoslashgan hisob-kitoblari
bo'yicha yozilgan kitoblar topishi mumkin. Bo'limda bir nechta "Qo'shimcha
o'qish" sarlavhasi tegishli matnlar keltirilgan ushbu bobning oxirida
Masalan 4-bobda tasvirlangan murakkab jarayonlar uchun material
balanslari odatda jarayonni simulyatsiya qilish dasturlari yordamida tuziladi,
Asosiy tamoyillar bo'lsa moddiy va energiya balanslari to'g'ri o'rganilmagan,
jarayonni modellashtirishda ko'p vaqt va kuch sarflash mumkin. Tanlovga alohida
e'tibor berilishi kerak tozalash va aylanib o'tish davrlari moddiy va energiya
balanslari, ishlab chiqarishni bashorat qilish va tushunish uchun eng yaxshi asos va
chegaralar resirkulyatsiya qilishdir, Ushbu bobda ko'rsatilgan qisqa muddatli
hisob-kitoblar kerak jarayon simulyatsiyasi natijalarini tekshirish uchun har doim
foydalaniladi. Resirkulyatsiya va bo'yanish oqimlarining yaxshi dastlabki
baholarini ta'minlash orqali oqim jadvalini modellashtirish konvergentsiyasi
tezlashtirish uchun qisqa hisob-kitoblardan ham foydalanish mumkin
Materiallar balansi, shuningdek, zavodning ishlashini tekshirish va
muammolarni bartaraf etish uchun foydali vositadir. Ular dizaynga nisbatan
ishlashni sinash uchun foydalanish mumkin; moddiy yo'qotishlar manbalarini
aniqlash mavjud bo'lgan tez-tez cheklangan ma'lumotlarni kengaytirish asboblar
asboblarni kalibrlashni tekshirishva moddiy yo'qotishlar manbalarini aniqlash
material laboratoriyalar yoki eksperimental qurilmalardan yuqori sifatli
ma'lumotlarni olish uchun balanslar kerak.
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