Маъсул муҳаррир: Филология фанлари доктори, профессор: Г. Х. Боқиева Тақризчилар

2. Tendency to use more expressive forms (emotional vocabulary).
3. Tendency to get rid of the language elements containing insignificant semantic function (the principal of frequency of usage).
C. Necessity of keeping the language in the condition of communicative validity (generations should understand each other).
D. Internal language changes and processes having no relation to the impact of certain tendency (system-based changes).
1. Influence of the form of one word to the form of another word (Analogy).
2. Contamination.
3. Junction of different words of different origin on the principle of the unity of meanings.
4. The raising of the new means of expressing certain meanings, as a result of association. E.g. Jeans - джинсы, bucks - баксы (buck – male rabbit, doe – female rabbit), rails – рельсы.
5. Appearance and disappearance of phonological oppositions: [лə]> [л:] – more.
6. Spontaneous changes of phonemes.
7. Change of the meaning of the words.
8. Notional words become suffixes in OE ere – meant – a man → now suffix - teacher.
9. Cases of interrelation of processes.
There are two main factors of language change:
Continuity (преемственность, изчиллик) IE → Germ. → En.
Causality (причинность, сабабийлик) French Influence on English, 1066, Norman Conquest.
Language families
Introduction to the more important language families including Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Afro-Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan, Malayo-Polynesian and others.
What are Language Families?
It appears that the use of language came about independently in a number of places.
All languages change with time. A comparison of Chaucer's English, Shakespeare’s English and Modern English shows how a language can change over several hundred years. Modern English spoken in Britain, North America and Australia use different words and grammar.
If two groups of people speaking the same language are separated, in time their languages will change along different paths. First they develop different accents; next some of the vocabulary will change (either due to influences of other languages or by natural processes). When this happens a different dialect is created; the two groups can still understand each other. If the dialects continue to diverge there will come a time when they are mutually unintelligible. At this stage the people are speaking different languages. One of the best examples in Western history occurred after the Roman Empire collapsed in the 4th Century AD. Latin was the language of that empire. All the Latin speakers in different parts of Europe (Italian Peninsula, Gaul, Iberian Peninsula, and Carpathian) became isolated from each other. Their languages evolved along independent paths to give us the modern languages of Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian.
The Sanskrit spoken in North India changed into the modern languages of the region: Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Bengali and others.