LoRa Communications as an Enabler for Internet of Drones towards Large-Scale Livestock Monitoring in Rural Farms

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Figure 1. 

Conceptual design of the developed farm monitoring system. 

3.1. Sensor Development and Deployment 

In this study, two types of sensors were deployed on the farm: (i) water inspection 

sensors to monitor the quality of water supply on the farm, and (ii) collar tags to monitor 

the behavior and health status of livestock. The development of the collar tag is out of the 

scope of this paper. However, for practical implementation, several collar tags are availa-

ble on the market. One of them is the SODAQ solar powered LoRa cattle tracker V2, which 

is  manufactured  by  Sodaq

® 

in Hilversum, Netherlands [65]. The collar tag is equipped 

with a LoRa module microchipRN2903, uBlox 8M GPS, and LSM303AGR accelerometer. 

Hence, in the simulations, a transmission range of 500 m was assumed for collar tags, 

which is compatible with the transmission range of water sensor nodes. 

The development of the water inspection system took place in multiple stages. 

Firstly, the conceptual design of the system and the required hardware were determined. 

This was then followed by the development of individual components to produce the wa-

ter inspection system. Finally, the water sensors, wireless communication module, con-

troller, solar panel, and power module were integrated, as shown in Figure 2. 

 

Controller

Ultrasonic sensor

(water level)

pH sensor

(pH value)

Electric conductivity 

sensor (% algae)

Turbidity 

sensor 

(NTU) 

LoRA node

Power module

Backup 

battery 

Solar Panel

Dissolved oxygen (mg/L)