The question of a paradigmatic relation between two entities arises only if they have the same
distribution. (This entails that they either occupy the same syntagmatic positions, or else they are in
complementary distribution, so they may be said to share their distribution in more abstract terms.)
This is a condition not generally met by entire c l a s s e s of units if these are distribution classes. A
distribution class includes all items that fulfill the condition mentioned. There is, therefore, nothing
left outside the distribution class that this class could contract a paradigmatic relation with. Thus, if
two word classes were found to be in opposition or complementary distribution (discarding the
possibility of free variation), that would be an argument for subsuming them under a more general
Hopper & Thompson (1984:710) put it like this: “Categoriality ... is thus imposed on linguistic forms by
precategorial (p. 747), does not follow; s. Lehmann 2008.
Christian Lehmann, The nature of parts of speech
9
common denominator; in other words, they would not be seen as distinct word classes in the first
place. The (putative) Kharia noun and verb reviewed in §2 provide an example of this.
A general principle of communication says that meaning presupposes choice: by using a certain
expression, a speaker can convey something only if he has a choice and might instead use a
different expression. On this is based a principle of method in structural linguistics which allows the
linguist to pin down a semantic or functional difference between two elements if they contrast in a
given context. This principle applies to individual signs. Applying it to categories of signs yields the
result that these do not meet the condition of substitutability. The principal raison d’être of parts of
speech is to c o m b i n e with each other in the formation of sentences. Thus, the question of a
semantic contrast among them does not even arise in any straightforward way.
14
The consequence
for the linguist who wants to find out about categorial meanings of word classes by applying the
methods of structural semantics is a methodological apory not easily overcome.
In some loose sense, the speaker does have a choice among word classes in certain contexts. In
the position of the predicate of a sentence, he may use a verb, or he may verbalize a noun or an
adjective by means of the copula. We will come back in §4.4.2 to such a substitution test, as it has
to do with the semantic side of word classes. There we will see that perfect minimal pairs of word
classes are impossible.
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