Lecture Stress in Germanic languages

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Lecture 8. Stress in Germanic languages 
Plan: 
1. Germanic languages and the typology of word stress 
2. Germanic languages with rightmost main stress 
3. Placement of secondary stress 
4. Intonation in Germanic 
Germanic languages and the typology of word stress 
A summary of the main features of metrical parametrization might run as 
follows:
Parameters classifying metrical systems
a. position of main stress: leftmost or rightmost
b. iterativity of metrical parsing: one foot or many feet
c. edge orientation of secondary stress parsing: towards the left or the right edge of 
the word
d. foot-type: trochaic or iambic
e. strict binarity: strictly binary feet or also ‘degenerate’ feet
f. quantity-sensitivity: stress placement is sensitive or insensitive to syllable 
quantity
g. Nonfinality (extrametricality) effects: no / yes 
Even though it has been shown that these parameters are not necessarily on 
or off, for a certain language, but that languages may e.g., be quantity sensitive in 
certain contexts, while they are quantity-insensitive in others, the parameters still 
serve as a useful tool to describe the general pattern of word stress in a certain 
language or language family. 
Here, the contrasts implemented by the parameters are represented using a 
notation where Y stands for the main stress syllable, X for a secondarily stressed 
syllable, u for an unstressed syllable parsed into a foot, and o for an unparsed 
syllable, of any weight. Foot boundaries are indicated with round brackets. When 
syllable quantity is at play, we distinguish between L (=light) and H (=heavy) 
syllables, which can be stressed (ˈL, ˈH), or unstressed (L, H). Whenever 
necessary, we will distinguish between main stressed (ˈL, ˈH) and secondarily 
stressed (ˌL, ˌH) light and heavy syllables. Main stress in examples is indicated 
with an acute (´) accent, secondary stress with a grave (`) accent. 
Main typological distinctions and their representation 
There are languages which place main stress on a syllable close to the left 
edge of the word, while others place it close to the right edge (a). Some languages 
are described as assigning only one stress per word (the main stress), while others 
are reported to assign also one or more secondary stresses (b). If a language parses 

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a series of secondary stresses, these can be closer to the left or closer to the right 
edge of the word (c). The orientation of feet toward one or the other edge has been 
analyzed in the framework of Optimality Theory in terms of “alignment” and this 
is how we will describe edge-orientation here. The type of feet that a language uses 
for metrical parsing typically is either left-headed (trochaic) or right-headed 
(iambic) (d). Languages may either make use of strictly binary feet, i.e., feet 
consisting of two syllables (Xu or uX) or of two moras (H), or they may also allow 
for so-called ‘degenerate’ feet, consisting of a single light syllable (L) (e). 
Languages may be quantitysensitive or quantity-insensitive (f). In a quantity-
sensitive language, heavy syllables typically interrupt the default metrical parse of 
the language attracting stress onto them. In a quantity-insensitive language, heavy 
syllables do not have any stress-attracting force and behave similarly to light 
syllables, with respect to metrical parsing. Languages also differ in what they 
consider to be a heavy syllable. In some quantity-sensitive languages only syllables 
containing a long vowel or a diphthong (CVV syllables) count as heavy, while in 
others also closed CVC syllables condition metrical parsing. Finally, languages can 
exhibit Nonfinality (extrametricality) effects (g). In traditional approaches, a 
syllable (or, in certain cases, a consonant or a foot) is considered extrametrical if it 
is excluded from prosodic structure altogether and does not count for the 
placement of main stress. In more recent approaches in the framework of 
Optimality Theory, extrametricality effects are interpreted as the result of the 
activity of Nonfinality constraints requiring the head of the prosodic word (i.e., 
either the main stress syllable or the main stress foot, or both) not to be final. 
Nonfinality effects are only attested at the right edge of the word, thus they become 
relevant only when main stress is rightmost.
The parameters define the basic stress pattern of a language for underived 
words. Morphology may add an additional layer of complexity to a system, with 
affixes being stress neutral, pre/poststressing or stress attracting, but before 
considering the prominence system of morphologically complex words, the basic 
pattern in the underived words of a language has to be identified.
All these parameters refer to systems in which stress assignment is fully 
predictable. There are, however, languages in which stress is assigned lexically, 
i.e., its position cannot be fully predicted by any rule or algorithm, but is (in part or 
completely) specified in the underlying representation of the word.
The Germanic languages exhibit clear preferences for some of the metrical 
parameters, while there is still no complete consensus in the literature as to the 
setting of others. 
There is no doubt that with respect to the parameter of foot-type (d), the 
Germanic languages have to be considered of the trochaic type (but see Burzio 
1994, who argues for dactylic feet in the analysis of English). For most of them it 
has been claimed that there is a pattern of iterative secondary stress (b), and 
although not much data is available for some of them, the available data point to a 
left edge-orientation of secondary stress feet (c). Most Germanic languages have 
been described as quantity sensitive (f), at least in certain contexts (cf. English, 
Dutch, German, Norwegian below), but for some of them this parameter has not 

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been explored in any detail (e.g., Danish). No Germanic language allows for 
degenerate feet (e).
As to parameter (a), in most Germanic languages, main stress placement is 
not completely predictable. In the ancestor languages of the modern Germanic 
languages, main stress was placed on the leftmost syllable of roots, which most 
often corresponded to the first syllable of the word. After contact with languages of 
the Romance type and subsequent incorporation of vast numbers of loanwords into 
the lexicon, stress assignment in all Germanic languages except Icelandic and 
Faroese has to be considered of the rightmost type. Together with rightmost main 
stress, extrametricality effects have become part of the system.
In what follows we will assume as uncontroversial the setting of foottype 
(position of head): Trochaic and Degenerate feet: no for all Germanic languages. 
We will then concentrate on the remaining typological traits, the placement of 
main stress and concomitant Nonfinality effects, the presence and orientation of 
secondary stress, and the issue of quantity sensitivity. 
Germanic languages with rightmost main stress 
All Germanic languages, to varying degrees, have undergone historical 
processes of weakening and deletion of unstressed vowels, which in large parts of 
native roots have led to erosion of all syllables except the initial, main stressed 
syllable, at most accompanied by a second, usually light syllable. The result are 
languages where, in the Germanic part of the lexicon, roots rarely are more than 
one or two syllables long and stress falls on the only syllable or the first of them. 
Taking German as an example, Golston and Wiese note that 79 percent of German 
root morphemes consist of a single, heavy syllable, i.e., a syllable containing a 
long vowel or closed in a consonant. Another 19 percent of roots consist of a heavy 
syllable followed by a second syllable containing schwa and, in some cases, a 
sonorant, which can become syllabic. Assuming that these second syllables are 
light, the typical German root morpheme has either the structure H or HL. Native 
affixes often have the same shape. 
German native root morphemes
a. H: [zeː] ‘lake’, [huːt] ‘hat’, [praxt] ‘splendor’
b. HL: [aʊgə] ‘eye’, [beːzən/beːzn̩ ] ‘broom’, [zeːgəl/zeːgl̩] ‘sail’ 
The position of main stress placement in a trochaic language with mostly 
monosyllabic, at most bisyllabic morphemes is ambiguous. Main stress assignment 
will inevitably fall on the only, or on the first of two syllables. This (ˈH), (ˈHL) 
structure can then be interpreted as an instance of leftmost, but also as an instance 
of rightmost main stress assignment. 
The ambiguity with respect to parameter (a) makes the Germanic languages