Lecture introductory. General characteristics of germanic languages list of principal questions
Morphological classification of verbs in Middle English and New English
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2. Morphological classification of verbs in Middle English and New English 2.0. The subdivision of Old English verbs into strong and weak is preserved with modifications in Middle English. 2.1. Strong verbs 2.1.1. Classes of the strong verbs In New English, however, the original regularity that was observed in the group of strong verbs in Old English and partly in Middle English is no longer felt due to the following: Splitting of original classes into subclasses, for example: Old English New English rise – rose – risen First class rīsan – rās – rison – risen Bītan – bāt – biton – bitten bite – bit – bitten
Some strong verbs of one class entering another class. Thus, the Old English verb of the 5th class: Sprecan – spræcon – sprǽcon – sprecen passed into the 5th class in Middle English with the forms: speken – spak – speken – spoken on analogy with such verbs as: stelen – stal – stelen – stolen Passing of some strong verbs into the group of weak verbs and (rarely) vice versa. For example: Old English New English I class gripan to grip glidan to glide II class crēopan to creep Lēoзan to lie III class climban to climb Helpan to help IV class bacan to bake wæcnan to wake The contrary process, as we have already said, is quite rare: Old English New English hŷdan to hide wærian to wear
But some weak verbs acquired only some features of the strong verbs, like the Old English weak verb scēawian – Modern English show, showed, but shown. 2.1.2. Principal forms of the strong verbs The strong verbs in Old English had four principal forms, for example: writan – wrāt – writon – written (to write) bindan – band – bundon – bunden (to shake) In Middle English, however, they exhibited a marked tendency to have the same vowel in both the forms of the past tense, thus gradually reducing the number of the principal forms to three. In New English we have only three principal forms in verbs originally belonging to the group of strong verbs: write – wrote – written The vowel that is preserved in the past tense is generally traced back to the vowel of Old English past tense singular. For example: Old English Middle English New English I class wrāt wrōt wrote (to write) II class scōc shōk shook (to shake) But sometimes it is the vowel of the original past tense plural: Old English bitan – bāt – biton – bitten Middle English bitten – bot – bitten – bitten New English bite – bit – bitten with the past tense form deriving its vowel from the past tense plural form of the verb. Sometimes the vowel of the past tense form was borrowed from the form of the past participle: Old English stelan – stæl - stǽlon –stolen Middle English stelen – stal – stelen – stolen New English steal – stolen – stolen 2.2. Weak verbs As we have said above the number of strong verbs was diminishing in Middle English and New English mainly due to the passing of some strong verbs into the weak conjugation. Weak verbs, however, were becoming more and more numerous, as they not only preserved in Middle and New English almost all the verbs that were typical of the group in Old English, but also added to their group the majority of borrowed verbs and about seventy originally strong, and also such verbs as: to call to want Scandinavian borrowings to guess to pierce to punish French borrowings to finish to contribute to create Latin borrowings to distribute Alike strong verbs many weak verbs became irregular in the course of history, especially weak verbs of the first class. This irregularity was mainly conditioned by qualitative and quantitative changes that many weak verbs underwent in Middle and new English. For example:
For instance: Old English II class lufian – lufode – lufod (to love) Middle English loven – lovede – luved 2.2.2. Principal forms of the weak verbs In Old English there were three principal forms of the weak verbs, for instance: cēpan – cēpte – cēpt (to keep) lufian – lufode – lufod (to love) In Late Middle English – Early New English, with the loss of the final -e in the second form the second and the third form became homonymous, thus we speak of three principal forms of such verbs as to love or to keep mainly on analogy with original strong verbs, and also because of the existing tradition as no Modern English regular verb, originally belonging to the weak conjugation, shows any trace of difference between the second and the third forms. Thus in New English due to different phonetic process and changes on analogy the two principal groups of verbs that existed in Old English, strong and weak, gave us two principal groups of Modern verbs: regular and irregular, neither of which is directly derived from either of the Old English groups of strong and weak verbs. 2.3. Origin of modern irregular verbs In Old English most verbs were regular, although there were a number of irregular ones. In Middle English not only the few Old English irregular verbs were preserved, but also new irregular verbs appeared. This was due, first of all, to the disappearance of the division of verbs into strong and weak, most strong verbs losing their regular pattern of conjugation and thus becoming irregular. Another source of irregular verbs was the 1st class of weak verbs the irregularity of which was due to several reasons. In addition to the examples given above we can show three groups of verbs originally belonging to the 1st class of weak verbs, which later became irregular: verbs with a long root vowel, the root ending in -t or -d: Old English mētan – mētte – mētt Middle English meten – mette – mett New English meet – met – met In Middle English the root vowel of the second and the third forms is shortened due to the rhythmic tendency of the language requiring the shortening of all vowels if followed by two consonants. The vowel interchange in Middle English is quantitative only. In New English the long root vowel in the first form due to the Great Vowel Shift is changed qualitatively, so now we have both quantitative and qualitative vowel interchange in the verb. verbs with a long root vowel, the root ending in a consonant other than -t or -d: Old English cēpan – cēpte – cēpt Middle English kepen – kepte – kept New English keep – kept – kept In Middle English the dental suffixation of the 2nd and 3rd forms is supplemented with a quantitative vowel interchange similar to that explained above, and in New English we have both vowel interchange (quantitative and qualitative) and suffixation as form-building means. verbs with a short vowel, the root ending in -t or -d: Old English settan – sette – sett Middle English setten – sette – sett New English set – set – set No changes took place in the root vowel, the ending disappeared due to the final reduction of unstressed vowels, and now the verb forms its forms without any material manifestation. Even in the 2nd class of weak verb examples of irregularity can be found. One of them is the verb to make.
Still another source of irregular verbs may be found in some loan words borrowed into the language in Middle and New English. Although most borrowed verbs formed their forms in accordance with the weak verbs of the 2nd class, some of them are irregular. Here it is possible to mention Scandinavian strong verb borrowings which preserve their original vowel interchange and thus are nowadays irregular, as: give – gave – given take – took – taken get – got – gotten
Thus, among New English regular verbs there may be encountered either native words (almost all Old English weak verbs of the 2nd class and some Old English strong verbs having lost their irregularity and forming their forms on analogy with the weak verbs of the 2nd class, such as to help, to bake, etc.) or borrowings (almost all loan verbs). 3. Grammatical categories of the English verb In Old English the verb had four categories: person, number, tense and mood. In Middle English and New English there gradually developed three more grammatical categories – order, voice and aspect. These grammatical categories used a new grammatical means for the formation, namely, analytical forms. These analytical forms developed from free word combinations of the Old English verbs habban, beon/wesan + an infinitive (or participle). The way of the formation of those analytical forms was the following: In the free word combination habban, beon/wesan + an infinitive (or participle) the first element was gradually losing its lexical meaning, and the second – its grammatical one, thus tending to become notionally and grammatically inseparable, idiomatic. The category of order was the oldest, formed already in Middle English from the Old English free combination habban + past participle.
This gentleman is happily arrived. Now he is gone.
The Old English present and past tense forms were supplemented with a special form for the future tense which appeared in Middle English out of the free combination of Old English modal verbs “sculan” and “willan” with the infinitive. This free combination of words was split into two groups: in the first, remaining free, the modal meaning is preserved: You shall do it – necessity I will do it – volition The category of mood in Old English was represented by three mood forms, one for each of the moods (indicative, subjunctive, imperative). The subjunctive in Old English did not show whether the events were probable or contrary to fact, but it had two tense forms – past and present, which in the course of language history developed into two subjunctive moods: I/he be present – out of the Old English present tense form of the subjunctive mood I/he were present – out of the Old English past tense form of the subjunctive mood. The difference between these two subjunctive moods now is in the shade of probability, and not in the tense, the second one denoting events which are contrary to fact. In addition to that at the end of Middle English and the beginning New English two more subjunctive mood forms appeared making use of the analytical form building means: I/he should be present – to show events which are probable, though problematic I should be present } – to show imaginary events, contrary to fact I would be present Here should and would are the subjunctive mood forms of the Old English sculan and willan. ٭٭٭
Summary Thus the system of conjugation in Middle English and New English is becoming more and more complicated: New non-finite forms appeared (the gerund). Conjugation of verbals and disappearance of their nominal categories. New grammatical forms are formed. The already existing grammatical categories acquire new forms. the predominant regularity of the verbs and their conjugation in Old English gives way to many diverse irregularities. LECTURE 9 ENGLISH VOCABULARY List of principal questions: Old English General characteristics Means of enriching vocabulary Internal means External means 2. Middle English 2.1. General characteristics 2.2 Means of enriching vocabulary 2.2.1. Internal means
External means 3. New English 3.1. General characteristics 3.2 Means of enriching vocabulary 3.2.1. Internal means
External means Literature R.V. Reznik, T.C. Sorokina, I.V. Reznik A History of the English language. M., 2003. T.A. Rastorguyeva History of English. M., 1983. А.И. Смирницкий Лекции по истории английского языка. М., 2000. К. Бруннер История английского языка. Т.2 М., 2001. И. Чахоян, Л. Иванова, Т. Беляева. История английского языка. СПб., 1998. А.И. Смирницкий Древнеанглийский язык. М., 1955. 1. Old English General characteristics The vocabulary of Old English was rather extensive. It is said to have contained about 50 000 words. These words were mainly native words. They could be divided into a number of strata. The oldest stratum was composed of words coming from the Common Indo-European parent tongue. Many of these words were inherited by English together with some other Indo-European languages from the same common source, and we shall find related words in various Indo-European languages. Compare:
niht night nox ночь nēowe new novus новый beran bear ferre брать Another layer, relatively more recent, was words inherited by English and other Germanic languages from the same common Germanic sources. You will find them in many languages, but only those belonging to the Germanic group. Compare:
land land Land sǽ sea See grēne green grűn findan find finden
The vocabulary was changing all the time, old words becoming extinct and new words entering the language, enriching it. As it is known, there are two principal ways of enriching the vocabulary of a language: internal means – those that are inherited in the language itself, and external means, which result from contacts between peoples. The English – speaking people of that period mainly used internal means of enriching the vocabulary to adapt their language to the expression of more varied or new notions.
word derivation In Old English affixation was widely used as a word-building means. There were very many suffixes, with the help of which new nouns, adjectives, adverbs and sometimes verbs were formed, for instance: noun suffixes of concrete nouns: -ere fisc + ere (fisher) -estre spin + estre (spinster) } denoting the doer of the action -inз cyn + inз (king)
noun suffixes of abstract nouns: -ð trēow + ð (truth) -nis зōd + nis (goodness) -scip frēnd + scip (friendship) -dōm frēo + dōm (freedom) -hād cild + hād (childhood)
adjective suffixes -iз īs + iз (icy), bys + iз (busy) -isc Engl + isc (English), Frens + isc (French) -ful car + ful (careful) -lēas slæp + lēas (sleepless) Prefixes were used on a limited scale and they generally had a negative meaning: for- for + Зiefan (forgive) mis- mis + dæd (misdeed) un- un + cūð (uncouth)
Dōm (doom) deman (to deem) - Word composition Word composition was a well-developed means of enriching vocabulary in Old English. For instance: Nouns sǽ + man (seaman), gold + smið (goldsmith), monan +dæз (Monday), sunan + dæз (Sunday) Engla + land (land of Angles) Adjective īc + ceald (ice-cold) External means of enriching vocabulary As we understand, borrowings into a language are a result of contacts with other nations. The Germanic tribes had but few contacts with other nations at the beginning of A.D., consequently the number of borrowed words in Old English was not great. The main borrowings that we can single out in Old English were Latin and Celtic borrowings. Latin borrowings The first Latin borrowings entered the language before the Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians invaded the British Isles, i.e. at the time when they still lived on the continent. Due to trade relations with their southern powerful neighbour – the Roman Empire – Germanic tribes learned a number of products that had been unknown to then, and, consequently, their names. So the first stratum of borrowings is mainly words connected with trade. Many of them are preserved in Modern English, such as: pound, inch, pepper, cheese, wine, apple, pear, plumb, etc. The second stratum of words was composed of loan Latin words that the German tribes borrowed already on British soil from the Romanized Celts, whom they had conquered in the 5th century. Those were words connected with building and architecture, as the preserved nowadays: title, wall, wall, mill, etc. They denoted objects which the Germanic invaders encountered on the British Isles. The third stratum of Latin loan words was composed of words borrowed after the introduction of the Christian religion. They are generally of a religious nature, such as the present-day words: bishop, devil, apostle, monk. As Latin was the language of learning at the time, there also entered the language some words that were not directly connected with religion, such as: Master, school, palm, lion, tiger, plant, astronomy, etc. - Celtic borrowings The Celtic language left very few traces in the English language, because the Germanic conquerors partly exterminated the local population, partly drove them away to the less fertile mountainous parts of the country, where they were not within reach of the invaders. The Celtic-speaking people who remained on the territory occupied by the Germanic tribes were slaves, and even those were not numerous. It is small wonder therefore that the number of Celtic loan words was limited. Among the few borrowed words we can mention: Down (the downs of Dover), binn (bin – basket, crib, manger), Some Celtic roots are preserved in geographical names, such as: Kil (church – Kilbrook), ball (house – Ballantrae), esk (water – river Esk) and some others. 2. Middle English 2.1. General characteristics An analysis of the vocabulary in the Middle English period shows great instability and constant and rapid change. Many words became obsolete, and if preserved, then only in some dialects: many more appeared in the rapidly developing language to reflect the ever-changing life of the speakers and under the influence of contacts with other nations. 2.2. Means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English 2.2.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary Though the majority of Old English suffixes are still preserved in Middle English, they becoming less productive, and words formed by means of word-derivation in Old English can be treated as such only etymologically. Words by means of word-composition in Old English, in Middle English are often understood as derived words. 2.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary The principal means of enriching vocabulary in Middle English are not internal, but external borrowings. Two languages in succession enriched the vocabulary English of that period – the Scandinavian language and the French language, the nature of the borrowings and their amount reflecting the conditions of the contacts between the English and these languages. Scandinavian borrowings The Scandinavian invasion and the subsequent settlement of the Scandinavians on the territory of England, the constant contacts and intermixture of the English and Scandinavians brought about many changes in different spheres of the English language: word-stock, grammar and phonetics. The relative ease of the mutual penetration of the languages was conditioned by the circumstances of the Anglo-Scandinavians contacts. Due to contacts between the Scandinavians and the English people many words were borrowed from the Scandinavian language, for example:
Sometimes the English language borrowed a word which it had no synonym. These words were simply added top the vocabulary. Examples: law, fellow The English synonym was ousted by the borrowing. Scandinavian Taken (to take) and callen (to call) ousted the English synonyms niman and clypian, respectively. Both the words, the English and the corresponding Scandinavian, are preserved, but they became different in meaning. Compare Modern English native words and Scandinavian borrowings: Native Scandinavian borrowing Heaven sky Starve die
Sometimes a borrowed word and an English word are etymologically doublets, as words originating from the same source in Common Germanic. Native Scandinavian borrowing shirt skirt shatter scatter raise rear Sometimes an English word and its Scandinavian doublet were the same in meaning but slightly different phonetically, and the phonetic form of the Scandinavian borrowing is preserved in English, having ousted the English counterpart. For example, modern English to give, to get come from the Scandinavian gefa, geta, this ousted the English giefan and gietan, respectively. Similar English words: gift, forget, guild, gate, again. There may be a shift of meaning. Thus, the word dream originally meant “joy, pleasure”; under the influence of the related Scandinavian word it developed its modern meaning. French borrowings It stands to reason that the Norman Conquest and the subsequent history left deep traces in the English language, mainly in the form of borrowings in words connected with such spheres of social and political activity where French-speaking Normans had occupied for a long time all places of importance. For example: Government and legislature: government, noble, baron, prince, duke, court, justice, judge, crime, prison, condemn, sentence, parliament, etc. military life: army, battle, peace, banner, victory, general, colonel, lieutenant, major, etc. religion: religion, sermon, prey, saint, charity, etc. city crafts: painter, tailor, carpenter, etc. (but country occupations remained English: shepherd, smith, etc.) pleasure and entertainment: music, art, feast, pleasure, leisure, supper, dinner, pork, beef, mutton, etc. (but the corresponding names of domestic animals remained English: pig, cow, sheep) words of everyday life: air, place, river, large, age, boil, branch, brush, catch, change, chain, chair, table, choice, cry, cost, etc. relationship: aunt, uncle, nephew, cousin. The place of the French borrowings within the English language was different: A word may be borrowed from the French language to denote notions unknown to the English up to the time: Government, parliament, general, colonel, etc. The English synonym is ousted by the French borrowing: English French micel large here army ēa river
Both the words are preserved, but they are stylistically different: English French to begin to commence to work to labour to leave to abandon life existence look regard ship vessel As we see, the French borrowings are generally more literary or even bookish, the English word – a common one; but sometimes the English word is more literary. Compare: Foe (native, English) – enemy (French borrowing)
Sometimes the English language borrowed many words with the same word-building affix. The meaning of the affix in this case became clear to the English-speaking people, and they began to add it to the English words, thus forming word-hybrids. For instance: the suffix –ment entered the language within such words as “government”, “parliament”, “agreement”, but later there appeared such English-French hybrids, such as fulfillment, amazement The suffix –ance/-ence, which was an element of such borrowed words as “innocence”, “ignorance”, “repentance”, now also forms words-hybrids, such as hindrance A similar thing: French borrowings “admirable”, “tolerable”, “reasonable”, but also: Readable, eatable, unbearable.
One of the consequences of the borrowings from French was the appearance of the etymological doublets. - from the Common Indoeuropean: native borrowed fatherly paternal - from the Common Germanic: native borrowed yard garden ward guard choose choice - from Latin: Earlier later (Old English borrowing) (Middle English borrowing) Mint money Inch ounce
Due to the great number of French borrowings these appeared in the English language such families of words, which though similar in their root meaning, are different in origin: native borrowed mouth oral sun solar see vision
There are calques on the French phrase: It’s no doubt Se n’est doute Without doubt Sans doubte Out of doubt Hors de doute Download 0,65 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham:
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