8.3.4
Liquid Propulsion System
The onboard propulsion system uses the principle of expelling mass at some velocity
in one direction to produce thrust in the opposite direction (Newton’s first law).
As with any rocket, there are principles and practices that govern how safely and
effectively propulsion is achieved. Three basic types of mass can be ejected: solid
fuel (e.g., a controlled explosion), liquid fuel (which decomposes into a gas jet),
and ion propulsion (which is based on accelerating charged particles with an electric
field). We begin with the liquid type of propulsion system, the most common.
The majority of commercial communications spacecraft control their orbital
positions by using small liquid fuel rocket engines. Propellant options include a
cold gas like nitrogen, which is low in cost and performance, a single combustible
propellant like hydrazine that produces hot gas thrust when exposed to a catalyst,
or two liquids (fuel and oxidizer) that produce combustion on contact. Low levels
of thrust are needed for small corrections in orbit, while high levels are needed for
major orbit changes or corrections. Large amounts of thrust required for major
orbit changes can be provided either by solid rocket motors or by large fuel engines.
The general arrangement of a three-axis spacecraft propulsion system is shown in
Figure 8.17.
The launch vehicle provides the boost to place the spacecraft into an initial
orbit from which adjustments can be made using the onboard propulsion system.
In the case of most GEO missions, that is an elliptical orbit with perigee at
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Spacecraft Bus Subsystems
275
Figure 8.17
General arrangement of propulsion systems for a three-axis spacecraft.
approximately 300 km and apogee at near-synchronous altitude (36,000 to 37,000
km). The configuration in Figure 8.17 assumes the use of a solid fuel apogee engine
that is permanently integrated into the spacecraft and fired by ground command.
The fact that a three-axis satellite does not spin to provide stability leads to
the need for many more thrusters and a much lower level of thrusting than employed
in the classic spinning satellites discussed in Chapter 2. As shown in Figure 8.17,
the typical three-axis uses 12 thrusters arranged in arrays on the north, south, east,
and west faces. Low thrust levels are needed to minimize disturbance of spacecraft
attitude during thrusting.
The performance of any thruster or rocket engine (liquid, solid, or electric) is
measured in terms of two key parameters:
1. Thrust force,
F
, measured in Newton (N) or pounds (force), there being
approximately 4.45 N/lb (force);
2. Specific impulse, I
sp
, measured in seconds, is the ratio of thrust force to the
mass expelled by the thruster to produce the thrust. This performance
parameter determines how much mass must be ejected to produce a given
orbit velocity increment. Multiplied by gravitational acceleration, g, I
sp
gives
the thruster mean velocity, c, which is the true meaningful physical parameter
in orbital maneuver calculations.
For reference, Table 8.2 is a summary of key characteristics for the types
of thrusters described here. They break down into chemical thrusters, electric
augmentation and ion thrusters, and solid-fuel rocket motors. The range of I
sp
values is from under 100 seconds on the low end for cold gas up to 2,000 seconds
or more for the different forms of electric and ion propulsion. As is usually the
case in high technology, the lower performance approaches are simple and very
reliable; as we move toward the higher performing systems, the complexity and
cost increase dramatically. However, the trend in large satellites is toward the
higher performing types of thrusters that also provide relatively low thrust force
levels. Table 8.2, summarized from [4], is for illustrative purposes and should not
be used as a design guideline.
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Spacecraft Mission and Bus Subsystems
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