238
Spacecraft Antennas
waveguide and use a quarter-wave monopole to drive microwave energy at the
proper frequency into one end, the opposite end would radiate some percentage
of that power into space. The efficiency of radiation is simply the ratio of the
power actually radiated into space divided by the total input power. Power not
radiated is reflected back to the transmitter or dissipated as heat within the conduct-
ing metal of the waveguide.
What this open-ended piece of waveguide has become is the simplest type of
nonreflector antenna horn. Figure 7.1 shows a pyramidal horn in which the end
of the waveguide is flared outward in the shape of a pyramid or a cone. The
dimensions of the opening are in direct proportion to the wavelength and are
dictated by the shaping of the far field antenna pattern. Also, the ratio of opening
to waveguide dimensions directly affects the match between the somewhat variable
and greater impedance of the waveguide to that of free space, which is approxi-
mately 377
⍀
. That match is needed to reduce the power reflected back toward
the transmitter. For a receiving antenna, a good match ensures that the received
signal energy is delivered to the repeater input port. It is that match, measured in
terms of the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), that defines the fundamental
electrical property of the antenna when connected to either the input or the output
of the repeater. The ideal condition of zero reflection occurs at VSWR
=
1:1 (one
to one), which cannot be achieved in practice across the entire operating band.
However, it is not uncommon to obtain a maximum-value VSWR of about 1.25:1
to 1.50:1, with 1.00:1 being measurable at certain frequencies. Of course, that
does not define the actual radiation pattern, which is discussed below in more
detail.
Examples of different types of horns are provided in Figure 7.2. Selection of
the pyramidal shape over the conical one is based on the particular application.
The pyramidal horn is well suited to linear polarized systems because of the natural
straightness of extending rectangular waveguide. The standard waveguide mode
of propagation is maintained, resulting in a symmetrical main-lobe pattern and
little or no cross-polarized component. In contrast, the conical horn flares from
either circular or square waveguide (in the latter case, there must be a square-to-
circular transition) into a circular aperture. This type of horn is best suited to dual
LP or CP, while the LP performance of the rectangular horn is superior.
Standard pyramidal and conical horns have smooth interior walls, as is the
case with waveguides. That minimizes losses and reduces the generation of higher
order modes that affect both efficiency and polarization performance. (We will see
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