Introduction The ballad in Renaissance and during Modern times

Ballad role in art development

Literary ballads of Europe are very bright example of what ways and how the world literature the thesis about which was put forward still by I.V. Goethe develops. Here play the mutual translations creating the general cultural base huge role: we will remind only of the translations of the Spanish romances, of a role of the transfers of "Lenora" of the Burgher for formation of a genre of the literary ballad in the different countries or of literally triumphal procession Serbian "Hasanaginitsa" across all Europe. The translations, in turn, are an important push for original creativity: we will remember "Svetlana" of VA. Zhukovsky or the poem "Branch of Palestine" of M. Yu. Lermontov cast by "The old knight" of L. Uland in translation of VA. Zhukovsky. Heine at all not incidentally called the poetic collection "Romansero" (1851) into Spanish of manners — in this collection consisting generally of ballads, it summed up tradition of development of the Spanish romance in Germany, having created at the same time and national, German, Romansero option — one of tops of the German poetry of the XIX century. So foreign-language, international poetic form becomes an integral part of national culture, enriches it (in other genre so bright synthesis represents "West east sofa" of Goethe).

The appeal to experience of world poetry helps the poet innovator to find itself, it is better to realize that new that he is urged to bring in the literature and in the native language. So, young B. Brecht looked for a literary form and rebellious pathos of the well-known ballads — "zong" as in national poetic tradition (the folk street song, its literary reconsideration by F. Vedekind), and in world "ballad" literature (first of all in F. Villon and R. Kipling's ballads). The ballad viewing songs V. Vysotsky addressed to B. Brecht's experience and besides to Villon in the.
The European ballad already during a romantic era found almost unique ability to synthesis of national and foreign traditions, to a free exchange of plots, subjects, motives and forms. The ballad was a genre really international, constantly enriched from the most various national sources: legends, fairy tales, bylinas, historical and predatory songs, important public events and private incidents, local beliefs, superstitions and customs. The ballad arose for love of the poet to mysterious and wonderful (K. Pavlova's "Fire" or "Dragon" and A. Fet's "Secret"), or from the public and moral motives turned as much to the mythologized history, how many and to the present ("Ilya Muromets" of A.K. Tolstoy, "Svyatogor and Ilya" of I.A. Bunin), or even as the most topical political satire (N. A. Nekrasov's "Secret", "Croquet in Windsor" of I.S. Turgenev or "The ballad about the countess Ellen de Coursi" M. Gorky)¹⁴.
Having become one of the most productive poetic genres of an era of romanticism, the ballad didn't disappear and with arrival of realism; she easily joined symbolist, neo-romantic and expressionistic poetics, managed to take a noticeable place and in poetry of socialist realism ("The ballad about twenty six" S. Yesenina, "The ballad about nails" and "The ballad about a blue package" of N. Tikhonov). The ballad was able to reflect the most difficult collisions and the atmosphere of an imperialistic era (R. Kipling, B. Brecht), as well as dialectics of development of socialist society (V. Vysotsky).
In present period with changed and in grand style branched mass media continue to live and enjoy love of readers not only literary, but also folk songs. However, their functioning significantly changed: as a rule, they are orally executed very seldom now and from generation to generation are handed down not, and as printing literary texts.
The European ballad, having arisen as a literary genre on an outcome of the first millennium of our era, I passed a difficult way of development. Its origin can't be reduced to any one source, sources and genesis of this surprising genre can be found both in folklore, and in mythology, and in the medieval heroic epos, and in history¹⁵.
So, medieval Provencal, Italian and Old French ballads find communication with spring rounds of the love contents. The Provencal word balada the dance tune means "a song" (from balar — "to dance"), the Italian ballata — the lyrical dancing song (from ballare — "to dance"), the French ballade or ballette (literally — "a dance tune the song") — all go back to late Latin ballgre — "to dance" (developed from Greek βαλλιτμόs — "dance"). In the Scandinavian ballads communication with dance remained also in the XX century, but this communication already and in the Middle Ages had no traces of primitive ceremonial action. Music, singing and dance from the very beginning acted in the ballad as independent arts, giving to this type of the ballad special art completeness. At the same time at many people of Europe the ballad already at early stages lost communications with dance or had even no them initially.
Finding surprising, almost universal "pantophagy" in the sources, the folk song kept this "pantophagy" on all extent of the centuries-old development, having transferred then its literary point. N. I. Kravtsov who was attentively investigating genesis and features of a Slavic folk song emphasized importance of the historical principle in approach to a genre: "The main point consists that variety of plots: forms and types (versions) of ballads — it developed not at once, and is result of long development of a genre which consisted in its enrichment in connection with the course of life of the people. The ballad existed not separately from other genres, and in incessant interaction with them that also formed a basis of emergence of its versions" [9, 197]. The most ancient layer of the European ballads has plot in many respects something in common with episodes of the mythological, animal or heroic epos. As the epos (for example, Celtic, Scandinavian, ancient German or South Slavic) informed to us line of archaic, prefeudal eras (military tribal community and even matriarchy), naturally, the same lines are reflected and in many ballads. Though in some regional researches superiority of the epos in relation to ballads is convincingly proved (on the example of the Spanish romances, the Norwegian ballads etc.), in a number of known cases of the ballad gave impulses to emergence of the epos¹⁶.
Folk song, actively developing within many centuries, constantly I incorporated and I recycled the most diverse material, scooping it from oral legends and written sources or directly from life. The academician M. P. Alekseev trying to understand the huge sea of English and Scottish ballads came to the following conclusion: "Origin of plots of ballads very variously: others have the sources the book legend, Christian legends, works of medieval writing, tales of chivalry, even in separate and exceptional cases of work of antique authors, acquired through any medieval processing and retellings; others go back to the oral legend, represent variations of the "vagrant plots" using the international distribution. The third reproduce any historical event, altering, stylistic it according to the general conditions of song tradition". So motley picture is represented by plots of the German folk ballads.
From the point of view of a variety of plots and nature of their processing of the ballad it is possible to define as narrative songs (or poems) with drama development of a plot.
Up to the present classification by the plots grouped in the thematic principle continues to remain the most widespread principle of classification of ballads (both national, and literary). So, N. I. Kravtsov subdivided Slavic ballads on mythical, historical, social and family and household. D. M. Balashov, distinguishing from the Russian ballads family and household, historical and social, I proceeded from "prevalence of this or that nature of the conflict". In one of the newest editions of Slavic folklore it is about "four theme groups of ballads: historical, love, family and social", allocated "depending on nature of the tragic conflict". Approximately business and with classification of ballads in the West European literatures also is¹⁷. Famous researcher of the English-language folk and literary song of G. M. Louz, based on the thematic principle, divides all ballads into eight classes: ballads about supernatural, about tragic situations, about love, about crimes and criminals, about the Scottish border, about war and adventures, ballads of the mixed character, comic ballads and parodies. Other large expert on English-speaking folk songs A. B. Friedman allocates fifteen theme groups. In one of the major generalizing works according to the German national song certain heads are devoted to the heroic ballad, the family ballad, the ballad based on a legend or on the legend, and, at last, the ballad-shvanku, i.e. the ballad based on comical incident. Already from the given examples of classification of ballads by the thematic principle it is visible that, facilitating systematization of all ballad fund, this principle is of no use for understanding of the main lines of the ballad, its differences from other epic or liriko-epic genres at the heart of which there can also be a tragic or drama conflict. Subjects and plots of ballads are so various that at desire it is possible with the big or smaller basis randomly to allocate any number the ballad of groups.
Artificiality of thematic approach forced scientists to look for other, more essential signs of the ballad. N. I. Kravtsov concerning Slavic ballads came to the following conclusion: "In all versions there is the general: family and personal plots and family and personal aspect of covering of events. It is peculiar to ballads of all times and all people and therefore can be the main, steady sign of the ballad as a genre". Really, a family as a public cell, changing, I kept many of the functions and within various public formations. And still N. I. Kravtsov's formulation suffers from an excessive categoriality. Plots European (including Slavic) folk songs far go beyond the family and personal conflicts. Literary ballads, finding indisputable continuity with national, in general similar classification isn't given in. Therefore, besides subject similarity (that is very important) it is necessary to look for also other signs characterizing the ballad as a genre¹⁸.
From many methods of differentiation and definition of ballads by the most perspective known now the evolutionary approach developed in a number of researches Yu.I is. Smirnova. Without rejecting the historical principle formulated by Kravtsov it brings under it a new methodological basis. According to the scientist, first, each folklore work represents "some set of options and versions" between which there are certain interrelations needing disclosure and studying, and, secondly, each folklore text besides option and the version "possesses also the form signs allowing to carry it to a certain genre version". The offered approach gives the chance to consider at the same time a form, the contents and type of art fiction of each ballad text and by that the ballad layers allows researchers to be guided more or less freely in centuries-old, to distinguish late texts and their versions from the early. Evolutionary approach to ballads convincingly proves that from the point of view of plots and conflict situations only the most ancient layer of ballads reflecting "variety of the kinship and family relations and relations between good and girl" is absolutely really isolated. Smirnov calls this group of ballads "actually ballads". Time of emergence of these ballads in Europe can be defined very approximately in comparison to other genres of folklore. Thus it is important to remember that the oral national tradition in Europe never interrupted and its historically testified forms in some regions take away in the far millennia B.C.
Therefore and "actually ballads", such what they could be at the moment of the initial emergence, didn't reach us because records however early they were, reflect already much later stages of development of a genre, having borne traces of the latest stratifications. Transformation of primary forms of the ballad consisted in strengthening of the lyrical beginning, expansion of a circle of plots, in complication and differentiation of forms. Speaking about art specifics of a folk song on the basis of the texts of the XIII—XVI centuries which reached us, it is possible to state such features of the ballad as dramatic nature of development of a plot, intermittence of the narration concentrating attention on culmination points, dialogue use as a syuzhetoobrazuyushchy factor, application of various forms of the repetition strengthening dramatic nature of a situation, and also the innuendo giving to ballads mystery or even mysteriousness. These features aren't surely shown at the same time, along with them there can be also others, ballads peculiar to these or those national forms¹⁹.
Genesis of the European ballad at earlier stages is calculated allegedly — not so much on the basis of texts (which remained only incidentally and fragmentary), how many by means of historical certificates. We will address to some of them.
One of early certificates of a continuity of national song tradition in the history of Europe are served by work of the Roman historian Cornelius Thucydides "About an origin of Germans and location of Germany" (98 AD), recorded mythological, heroic and military songs at continental Germans. In the XIX century. Julien Tierso in basic research "History of a national song in France" (1889) brings numerous data on an existing into the Middle Ages (since VII century) on the French earth "three childbirth of narrative songs: the epic songs which were based mainly on legends of the German conquerors; the religious chants composed by priests in imitation the first, and, at last, songs legends, created by directly national talents". Executed, and quite often and composed these songs jugglers — vagrant singers-poets (at continental Germans friendly singers were called as skopa, vagrant singers - poets — shpilmana). Speaking about development of a genre of the French ballad from narrative songs, Zh. Tyerso does very remarkable supervision: "In the majority of our provinces legendary or romantic legends of the past times — small poems, touching and naive, passed by word of mouth in centuries and sometimes exciting listeners even during our satiated era meet. For this new group of narrative songs the name — the complaint (complainte) seems to us the only thing suitable, despite of Latin etymology and specific value in which this name was used. We reject the name "ballad" which came to France through Provence, belonging to a sort of a dancing song (the Italian ballata). Later it served for designation of a poetic form, very remarkable, but having nothing in common with national... The name "ballad", in its today's value, became known in France only at the beginning of the XIX century, brought into fashion by Walter Scott's novels. It was impossible to call differently the group of songs existing at us since the most remote times²⁰".
Zh. Tyerso raises an important question of a ratio of two types of ballads here: the type corresponding to the etymological word meaning "ballad" anyway connected with dance with a spring ceremonial round and other its type, it is much bigger corresponding to modern definition of the ballad. But absolutely to divide these two types of the ballad (as it does to Zh. Tyerso), in our opinion, illegally because in Scandinavia, as we know, both of them quite organically united: the drama narrative song was sung in round dance. Distinctions of the called types of ballads carry, therefore, not general, but private, regional character, and further searches of the mediating links are probably necessary.
At restoration of a picture of development of lyrical kinds of the ballad it must be kept in mind all richest context of medieval national and court poetry. K.A. Ivanov who drew in the book "Troubadours, Trouveres and Minnezinger" (1901) wide panoramas of development and interaction of lyric and epic genres of medieval literatures of Western Europe tracked an execution art transfer continuity (and then and compositions) poetic works from antique mimes and gistrion to jugglers and minstrels, and from them — to trouveres (whom he calls "jugglers writers") and to troubadours. In Provencal and Old French poetry of the ballad consisted of three or four stanzas including till eight, ten or twelve lines with a short refrain. In the XIII—XV centuries. in France poems from three (or four) rhymed stanzas (3 stanzas on identical rhymes — ababbcbc for 8-syllabic, ababbccdcd for a 10-syllabic verse) with a refrain and the final semi-stanza — "parcel" turned to the addressee were called as ballads. The French version of the medieval ballad gained the world fame thanks to Francois Villon (apprx. 1431 — after 1463); considerably later the type of the literary ballad was developed special, "viyonovsky". Italian "balata" also developed in the Middle Ages mainly as a lyric genre. The Viyonovsky type of the literary ballad not only revived subsequently in skillful stylizations and imitations (V. Ya. Bryusov, M. A. Kuzmin, etc.), but also gained development as an independent form of the modern literary ballad (B. Brecht, V. Vysotsky)²¹.
Considerable impact on the European poetry of modern times, including and the genre of the literary ballad formed then, rendered the Spanish romance since the end of the XVIII century. Already the bishop Percy in the preface to the well-known meeting "Relic of ancient English poetry" (1765) compared ballads to romances and itself translated two romances as a sample; after it in England romances were translated by Walter Scott, Byron and other poets. In Russia the first transfer of the Spanish romance "Count Gvarinos" was made by N. M. Karamzin in 1789; in the XIX century addressed to "Romances about Cyd" P. A. Katenin and VA. Zhukovsky. But, apparently, experience of development of the Spanish romances in the German poetry was especially fruitful. I. G. Herder who translated on the Spanish and French sources the whole set of romances about Cyd [7] was the first who paid to them attention. About the Spanish romances Goethe, F. Shlegel, A. Shlegel, Ya. Grimm, G. V. F wrote. Hegel; many romantics not only translated the Spanish romances, but also wrote ballads in the form of romances (L. Uland, K. Brentano, G. Heine). At a boundary of the XVIII—XIX centuries of the concept Ballade and Romanze of Germany practically didn't differ and only in the second quarter of the XIX century Hegel makes an attempt to differentiate them theoretically, and Heine — is art²².
What represented these Spanish romances which played so noticeable role in registration of one of important genre kinds of the European literary ballad? The outstanding Spanish philologist R. Menendes Pidal calling the homeland "the country of romances" sought to understand specifics of the Spanish romances in comparison with songs of ballad character at other European people; he came to the following conclusion: "The romance — is the liro-epic song possessing the most heroic and knightly contents from all songs such; only the Danish and Swedish Wieser can be compared to him. But though Wieser too makes an exception of the general rule, romances not only more widely represent national life and history, but also by stronger roots are connected with heroic poetry, that poetry which was a source of development of new literatures and from which romances apprehended heroes, subjects, features of the poetic form and even the verses. The romances which spread by all seas and lands on which the Spanish empire was stretched — it is the liro-epic songs charming imagination of other people in the southern and northern hemispheres. It is the song which reached the greatest art heights and became a worthy source for important areas of literary creativity as in classical, and in present period... At last, romances on the traditional character, on coverage of the historical events represented in them, on a set of the epic and moral strokes lighting certain moments of history represent quintessence of characteristics of the Spanish life". R. Menendes Pidal showed communication of the Spanish romances with the ancient Spanish epos, with a Carlovingian cycle of epic legends, established various references of romances, first of all a novelistic of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. In his opinion, plots and forms of the Spanish romances are similar to plots and forms of national lyrical poetry. The scientist in detail considered "process of absorption of lyrical forms the forms peculiar to the ancient epos". If to consider that in other extensive work "The Arab poetry and poetry European" on the example of development Arab andaluzsk a genre Zadzhal R. Menendes Pidal convincingly proved that "in the concept of courteous love Arab andaluzsk the poetry was the predecessor of lyrics of Provence and other Romance countries and served them as a sample concerning a specific form with what coincidence of all seven kinds of a stanza to a unison reprise in the Arab andaluzsk and Romance poetry is connected", becomes clear that the Spanish romance played a role of a peculiar bridge on which I got into it not only the Spanish subject and the Spanish poetic originality, but also the exotic poetic world of the Arab East in the European ballad poetry²³.