d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e r nat i o na l l aw
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On the one hand there was the ‘naturalist’ school, exemplified by Samuel
Pufendorf (1632–94),
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who attempted to identify international law com-
pletely with the law of nature; and on the other hand there were the
exponents of ‘positivism’, who distinguished between international law
and Natural Law and emphasised practical problems and current state
practices. Pufendorf regarded Natural Law as a moralistic system, and
misunderstood the direction of modern international law by denying the
validity of the rules about custom. He also refused to acknowledge treaties
as in any way relevant to a discussion of the basis of international law.
Other ‘naturalists’ echoed those sentiments in minimising or ignoring the
actual practices of states in favour of a theoretical construction of absolute
values that seemed slowly to drift away from the complexities of political
reality.
One of the principal initiators of the positivist school was Richard
Zouche (1590–1660), who lived at the same time as Pufendorf, but in
England.
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While completely dismissing Natural Law, he paid scant regard
to the traditional doctrines. His concern was with specific situations and
his book contains many examples from the recent past. He elevated the law
of peace above a systematic consideration of the law of war and eschewed
theoretical expositions.
In similar style Bynkershoek (1673–1743) stressed the importance of
modern practice and virtually ignored Natural Law. He made great con-
tributions to the developing theories of the rights and duties of neutrals
in war, and after careful studies of the relevant facts decided in favour of
the freedom of the seas.
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The positivist approach, like much of modern thought, was derived
from the empirical method adopted by the Renaissance. It was concerned
not with an edifice of theory structured upon deductions from absolute
principles, but rather with viewing events as they occurred and discussing
actual problems that had arisen. Empiricism as formulated by Locke and
Hume
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denied the existence of innate principles and postulated that ideas
were derived from experience. The scientific method of experiment and
verification of hypotheses emphasised this approach.
From this philosophical attitude, it was a short step to reinterpreting
international law not in terms of concepts derived from reason but rather
in terms of what actually happened between the competing states. What
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