Corfu Channel
case
81
See Higgins,
Development
, pp. 58–130; M. Rajan,
United Nations and Domestic Jurisdiction
,
2nd edn, London, 1961, and H. Kelsen,
Principles of International Law
, 2nd edn, London,
1966.
82
E/CN.4/1991/SR. 43, p. 8, quoted in UKMIL, 62 BYIL, 1991, p. 556. See also statement of
the European Community in 1992 to the same effect, UKMIL, 63 BYIL, pp. 635–6. By way
of contrast, the Iranian
fatwa
condemning the British writer Salman Rushdie to death was
criticised by the UK government as calling into question Iran’s commitment to honour
its obligations not to interfere in the internal affairs of the UK,
ibid.
, p. 635. See also M.
Reisman, ‘Sovereignty and Human Rights in Contemporary International Law’, 84 AJIL,
1990, p. 866.
83
See also the use of force, below, chapter 20.
214
i n t e r nat i o na l l aw
in 1949, ‘between independent states, respect for territorial sovereignty is
an essential foundation of international relations’.
84
By a similar token a state cannot purport to enforce its laws in the terri-
tory of another state without the consent of the state concerned. However,
international law would seem to permit in some circumstances the state
to continue to exercise its jurisdiction, notwithstanding the illegality of
the apprehension.
85
It also follows that the presence of foreign troops on
the territory of a sovereign state requires the consent of that state.
86
Equality
87
One other crucial principle is the legal equality of states, that is equality
of legal rights and duties. States, irrespective of size or power, have the
same juridical capacities and functions, and are likewise entitled to one
vote in the United Nations General Assembly. The doctrine of the legal
equality of states is an umbrella category for it includes within its scope
the recognised rights and obligations which fall upon all states.
This was recognised in the 1970 Declaration on Principles of Interna-
tional Law. This provides that:
All states enjoy sovereign equality. They have equal rights and duties and
are equal members of the international community, notwithstanding dif-
ferences of an economic, social, political or other nature.
In particular, sovereign equality includes the following elements:
(a) States are juridically equal;
(b) Each state enjoys the rights inherent in full sovereignty;
(c) Each state has the duty to respect the personality of other states;
(d) The territorial integrity and political independence of the state are
inviolable;
(e) Each state has the right freely to choose and develop its political, social,
economic and cultural systems;
(f) Each state has the duty to comply fully and in good faith with its
international obligations and to live in peace with other states.
88
84
ICJ Reports, 1949, pp. 4, 35; 16 AD, pp. 155, 167. See below, p. 575.
85
See e.g. the
Eichmann
case, 36 ILR, p. 5. But see further below, p. 680.
86
See the statement made on behalf of the European Community on 25 November 1992
with regard to the presence of Russian troops in the Baltic states, UKMIL, 63 BYIL, 1992,
p. 724.
87
Oppenheim’s International Law
, p. 339, and Nguyen Quoc Dinh
et al
.,
Droit International
Public
, p. 428.
88
See also Final Act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, Helsinki,
1975, Cmnd 6198, pp. 2–3. See also O’Connell,
International Law
, pp. 322–4; P. Kooijmans,
t h e s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r nat i o na l l aw
215
In many respects this doctrine owes its origins to Natural Law thinking.
Just as equality was regarded as the essence of man and thus contributed
philosophically to the foundation of the state, so naturalist scholars treated
equality as the natural condition of states. With the rise in positivism, the
emphasis altered and, rather than postulating a general rule applicable to
all and from which a series of rights and duties may be deduced, interna-
tional lawyers concentrated upon the sovereignty of each and every state,
and the necessity that international law be founded upon the consent of
states.
The notion of equality before the law is accepted by states in the sense
of equality of legal personality and capacity. However, it would not be
strictly accurate to talk in terms of the equality of states in creating law.
The major states will always have an influence commensurate with their
status, if only because their concerns are much wider, their interests much
deeper and their power more effective.
89
Within the General Assembly of the United Nations, the doctrine of
equality is maintained by the rule of one state, one vote.
90
However, one
should not overlook the existence of the veto possessed by the USA, Russia,
China, France and the United Kingdom in the Security Council.
91
Peaceful co-existence
This concept has been formulated in different ways and with different
views as to its legal nature by the USSR, China and the Third World. It was
elaborated in 1954 as the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence by India
and China, which concerned mutual respect for each other’s territorial
integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in
each other’s affairs and the principle of equality.
92
The idea was expanded in a number of international documents such as
the final communiqu´e of the Bandung Conference in 1955 and in various
resolutions of the United Nations.
93
Its recognised constituents also appear
The Doctrine of the Legal Equality of States
, Leiden, 1964, and Marshall CJ,
The Antelope
,
10 Wheat., 1825, pp. 66, 122.
89
See Nguyen Quoc Dinh
et al
.,
Droit International Public
, pp. 1062–3.
90
See e.g. L. Sohn,
Cases on UN Law
, 2nd edn, Brooklyn, 1967, pp. 232–90, and G. Clark
and L. Sohn,
World Peace Through World Law
, 3rd edn, New York, 1966, pp. 399–402.
91
The doctrine of equality of states is also influential in areas of international law such as
jurisdictional immunities, below, chapter 13, and act of state, above, chapter 4, p. 179.
92
See e.g. Tunkin,
Theory
, pp. 69–75. See also B. Ramondo,
Peaceful Co-existence
, Baltimore,
1967, and R. Higgins,
Conflict of Interests
, London, 1965, pp. 99–170.
93
See e.g. General Assembly resolutions 1236 (XII) and 1301 (XIII). See also
Yearbook of the
UN
, 1957, pp. 105–9;
ibid.
, 1961, p. 524 and
ibid.
, 1962, p. 488.
216
i n t e r nat i o na l l aw
in the list of Principles of the Charter of the Organisation of African Unity.
Among the points enumerated are the concepts of sovereign equality, non-
interference in the internal affairs of states, respect for the sovereignty
and territorial integrity of states, as well as a condemnation of subversive
activities carried out from one state and aimed against another. Other
concepts that have been included in this category comprise such principles
as non-aggression and the execution of international obligations in good
faith. The Soviet Union had also expressed the view that peaceful co-
existence constituted the guiding principle in contemporary international
law.
94
Protectorates and protected states
95
A distinction is sometimes made between a protectorate and a protected
state. In the former case, in general, the entity concerned enters into an
arrangement with a state under which, while separate legal personality
may be involved, separate statehood is not. In the case of a protected
state, the entity concerned retains its status as a separate state but enters
into a valid treaty relationship with another state affording the latter
certain extensive functions possibly internally and externally. However,
precisely which type of arrangement is made and the nature of the status,
rights and duties in question will depend upon the circumstances and, in
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