V
VRS
Bosnian Serb Army
W
WTO
World Trade Organisation
CHAPTER 1
THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW
1.1
INTRODUCTION
International criminal law (ICL) constitutes the fusion of two legal disciplines:
international law and domestic criminal law. While it is true that one may discern
certain criminal law elements in the science of international law, it is certainly not
the totality of these elements that make up the discipline of ICL. Its existence is
dependent on the sources and processes of international law, as it is these sources
and processes that create and define it. This can be illustrated by examining any one
of the acknowledged international offences. Piracy
jure gentium,
for example, exists
simultaneously as a crime under customary international law, as well as treaty law,
specifically the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
1
In examining its status and nature, whether as a treaty or customary rule, recourse is
to be made not only to the relevant sources and norms of international law, but also
to the non-piracy clauses of UNCLOS itself. The concept of piracy cannot be fully
realised unless other concepts are first explored, such as the freedom to navigate on
the high seas, delimitation of maritime zones, Flag State jurisdiction and many others.
Similarly, one cannot examine an international offence, such as piracy, without
recourse to those rules which delineate the legal standing of natural persons in the
international legal system and their capacity to enjoy rights directly from this system,
as well as to suffer lawful consequences for any violations (international legal
personality). Undoubtedly, it does not suffice simply to discern and extrapolate
mechanically all those criminal elements that are abundant in general international
law and then combine them to establish a new discipline, as this does not help explain
the binding nature of rules, nor their role in any given normative system.
The criminal laws of nations, expressed both through legislative action and the
common law, constitute a vital component of ICL. International rules are generally
imperfect and imprecise, not least because of the political difficulties in their drafting
and agreement among competing national interests. With few exceptions, and in
correlation to the preceding argument, international treaties rely on signatory States
to further implement their provisions with precision at the domestic level, not
necessarily in identical manner, but with a certain degree of consistency and
uniformity based on the object and purpose of each particular treaty. In the case of
piracy
jure gentium,
for example, the national legislation implementing the piracy
provisions of UNCLOS into domestic criminal law will have to address the question
of the material and mental attributes of the offence. UNCLOS is largely silent on the
mens rea
of piracy and so a myriad of mental components has to be prescribed at the
domestic level, including whether or not the offence is one of strict liability. Some
States may further posit that, according to general principles of their own criminal
law, the perpetrator of an offence is relieved from criminal culpability if the act was
based on political or other ideological motivation (the so called ‘political offence
1
Reprinted in 21ILM (1982), 1261.
International Criminal Law
2
exception’)—in those instances where a convention is unclear or silent on the issue.
Similarly, the imposition of penalties, at the discretion of parliament or the national
judiciary, as well as the judicial determination of the extent of the various maritime
zones, serve to indicate that certain elements of even a very old and reasonably well
established international offence, such as piracy, may vary from country to country.
But, this is an unavoidable occurrence, since criminal law is above all a practical
discipline, and so ICL cannot operate in a theoretical vacuum, but in strict accordance
with its objectives, that is to prevent the commission of offences, to prosecute and
ultimately to punish offenders. In the absence of an all-embracing international
criminal authority, these functions have been bestowed to national authorities, whose
conformity to international law generally passes through domestic channels, such
as national law and the dictates of the executive. As will be demonstrated below,
however, the discretion of States to define international offences in their domestic
law is not unlimited, but circumscribed by general international law and certain
ICL principles.
1.2
SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND INDIVIDUAL
LEGAL PERSONALITY
Article 38(1) of the 1945 Statute of the International Court of Justice recognises two
types of sources: primary and secondary. The primary sources of international law
are treaties, international custom and general principles of law, all being independent
and capable of producing binding rules. The secondary sources of international law,
namely the writings of renowned publicists and the decisions of international courts,
simpty serve to ascertain, and perhaps interpret, the primary sources. Treaties are
agreements between sovereign nations, governed by international law and generally
binding only upon parties to each particular agreement. Customary law is composed
of two elements, an objective and a subjective.
2
The objective element is made up of
the uniform and continuous practice of States with regard to a specific issue and,
depending on its adherents, this may take the form of a universal or a local custom.
The subjective element comprises a State’s conviction that its practice on a particular
issue emanates from a legal obligation, which it feels bound to respect. It has been
reasonably argued that the objective element is not always required in the formation
of a customary rule. This is predicated on the notion that, although every sovereign
State has an interest in the development of international norms, not all States have
the capacity to demonstrate some kind of material action. For example, the utilisation
of outer space has been possible only by certain developed nations, as has the
exploration of the natural resources lying beneath the seabed of the high seas. This,
it is argued, should not prevent less developed States from having a voice in the
regulation of these areas. It is for this reason that General Assembly resolutions,
2
FDR v Denmark; FDR v The Netherlands (North Sea Continental Shelf
cases) (Merits) (1969) ICJ Reports
3, paras 73–81; see generally M Akehurst, ‘Custom as a Source of International Law’, 47
BYIL
(1974–
75), 1.
Chapter 1: Theory of International Criminal Law
3
which are not: otherwise binding, may be declaratory of customary law where they
evince universal consensus through the unanimity of participating States.
3
But, even
where State practice may be deemed to be required, physical action is not necessarily
the best determinant. In the field of international humanitarian law, for example, it
would be impracticable to ascertain State practice with regard to the behaviour of
troops on the battlefield and recourse should be made to military manuals and
decrees, ratification of relevant instruments and other similar official
pronouncements indicating a legal commitment.
4
International customary rules bind all States, except for those that have consistently
and openly objected to the formation of a rule from its inception.
5
This general
framework is subject to one exception; consistent objection to a customary rule where
that rule is also a peremptory norm of international law (that is, a
jus cogens
norm) is
unacceptable.
6
No derogation is allowed from
jus cogens
norms, which generally
comprise fundamental human rights and rules of international humanitarian law,
as well as the prohibition of the use of unlawful armed force. Similarly, treaty
provisions reflecting peremptory norms of international law are binding upon third
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