Integrating social justice-oriented content into English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) instruction: A case study
Leah Mortenson Ph.D.
Department of English, Keio Academy, 3 College Road, Purchase, NY 10577, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 13 September 2021
Keywords:
EAP
Emergent bilingual
Case study
Higher education
Writing
Social justice education
a b s t r a c t
This study examines the integration of social justice-oriented content into English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) instruction at a four-year university on the East coast of the
United States. In the context of an Academic Writing course taught to emergent bilingual
(EB) students, this article identi
fi
es the challenges and prospects of utilizing material that
addresses past and present racial inequities in the United States
d
particularly when it
comes to equipping EBs with essential background knowledge to engage in meaningful
dialogues and critical writing about social issues that are entrenched in white supremacist
and settler colonialist histories. It makes suggestions for TESOL educators who seek to
adopt more equitable and inclusive teaching practices by leaning into rather than away
from challenging classroom conversations with EB students and embracing the inter-
secting challenges and opportunities for new learning that may arise.
Ó
2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
1.1. TESOL as a border site for settler colonialism, discrimination, and whiteness
Teaching English to Speakers of other Languages (TESOL) has long been thought of as a border site for colonialist per-
spectives as it seeks to maintain English as the dominant world language (
Hsu, 2017
;
Liggett, 2014
;
Sterzuk, 2015
;
Taylor,
2006
). TESOL may also be seen as overlapping with imperialism, heteronormativity, and white supremacy as
“
Native
Speakers
”
are often the most sought-after English language teachers, a majority of TESOL educators is white (
Motha, 2006
),
and within English language teaching the white male Western body has been commodi
fi
ed and positioned as highly desirable
(
Appleby, 2013
). Research has addressed the need to de-silence race in the
fi
eld of TESOL (
Cho, 2016
;
Crump, 2014
;
Guerrettaz
& Zahler, 2017
;
Kubota, 2002
;
Kubota & Lin, 2006
) and invest in postcolonial practices (
Lin & Luke, 2006
;
Shin, 2006
;
Von Esch,
Motha & Kubota, 2020
). However, not enough is being done in the
fi
eld to actualize these calls through on the ground at-
tempts that can reveal the opportunities and challenges that may arise when undertaking such efforts.
In keeping with scholars like
Flores, Kleyn, and Menken (2015)
and
García (2009)
who encourage practitioners to
decolonize their terminology, I utilize the term
“
Emergent Bilingual
”
(EB) to refer to students in this article as it foregrounds
students
’
strengths and evolving competencies. Emergent bilingual (EB) students have historically been labeled
“
English
language learners
”
(ELLs), a term which disregards the fact that monolingual students are also learning English. The term ELL
also does not give credit to EB students
’
multilingual abilities (
Crumpler, Hands
fi
eld, & Dean, 2011
). It is widely understood
E-mail address:
lmortenson@keio.edu
.
Contents lists available at
ScienceDirect
English for Speci
fi
c Purposes
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : h t t p : / / e e s . e l s e v i e r . c o m / e s p / d e f a u l t . a s p
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2021.08.002
0889-4906/
Ó
2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
English for Speci
fi
c Purposes 65 (2022) 1
–
14
within TESOL that terms such as
“
Limited English Pro
fi
cient
”
(LEP),
“
Long-Term English Language Learner
”
(LTELL), and
“
Students with Interrupted Formal Education
”
(SIFE) contribute to de
fi
cit narratives about EB students and position them
secondarily to their monolingual peers in their academic and linguistic abilities (
Kumaravadivelu, 2003
). Researchers and
practitioners must continue to revise and re
fi
ne the language we use to convey asset-based understandings of learners. In
keeping with this value, I use the term Emergent Bilingual (EB) intentionally to honor students
’
multiple and evolving lan-
guage capacities.
EB students have historically been constructed as
“
less than
”
in U.S. educational contexts, treated as less intelligent than
their white peers (
Harklau, 2000
), denied access to challenging curricula (
Callahan, 2005
), and regarded as problems rather
than educational assets whose knowledge and experiences add value to the classroom (
Gutiérrez & Orellana, 2006
;
Reeves,
2004
). Within TESOL, Whiteness may be seen as a
“
veiled element
”
of teaching English (
Motha, 2006
), since both being white
and being a native speaker of English have historically been identity markers that denote power. English has been used as a
conversational medium for acts of colonialism and domination, serving as a border site where the racial, national, linguistic,
and cultural
“
Other
”
is both created and reproduced (
Luke, 2004
). While TESOL has historically served the interests of white
Europeans in power, it does not perforce need to be this way, and white English language teachers have agency to transform
the historical legacies they leave behind.
Gillborn (2019)
differentiates
“
Whiteness
”
from
“
white people,
”
locating Whiteness
in embodied actions, underlying prejudices, and biases that ultimately bene
fi
t white people. In this characterization, white
people may contribute to Whiteness, but they may also work against it by working to unlearn certain socialized beliefs and
behaviors to change subsequent actions.
A white person who teaches English cannot do so without confronting the implications of the legacy of settler colonialism,
racism, and Whiteness in the discipline and the fact that white Native-English speakers make up the majority of TESOL
educators in the United States (
Kubota & Lin, 2006
). Scholars and practitioners who are interested and invested in decolo-
nizing the
fi
eld of TESOL must be ready and willing to face the complexities, contradictions, and responsibilities apparent in
acknowledging this history and engaging EB students in conversations about social justice issues that may encourage greater
criticality towards the reigning global authority invested in the English language (
Lynn Yosso, Solorzano, & Parker, 2002
).
1.2. Avoidance of ideological content in English for Academic Purposes
While research into English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programs has developed substantially over the past several
decades as related to embracing new genres, technologies, and research-informed practices (
Bahrami, Hosseini, & Reza Atai,
2019
;
Hyland & Shaw, 2016
), there has been minimal research into the adoption of critical, social justice-oriented content in
such programs to teach EB students about the historical legacy that informs the current sociopolitical context in which they
are completing their studies. Critical approaches to teaching English for academic purposes have been well documented in the
literature (
Benesch, 1993
;
Hyland, 2004
;
Paltridge, 2001
;
Pennycook, 1996
;
Santos, 1992
). Scholars like
Benesch (1999
;
2001
;
2010)
have provided examples for how to model that successful communication requires not only effective English language
skills, but also the ability to make text/context connections and utilize words to address the outside world (
Airey, 2016
;
Canagarajah, 2006
).
Historically, EAP programs have tended to employ inauthentic, oftentimes outdated, materials that focus solely on relaying
linguistic competency while foregoing opportunities for critical engagement with challenging, socially relevant material
(
Flowerdew & Peacock, 2001
).
Scholars like
Cangarajah (2002)
have criticized EAP settings for being too ready to accommodate status quo visions of
language instruction that avoid ideological content at the expense of EB learners
’
growth. Having nuanced understandings of
contemporary societal issues and being able to deduce social and rhetorical expectations of texts can help to create more
equitable opportunities for EB learners (
Schleppegrell, 2013
). Embracing authentic, socially conscious curricula and providing
students with opportunities for rich discussion and debate over local and global issues contributes to the goal of decolonizing
English language teaching as it provides students with opportunities to develop critical thinking, evolve discussion skills, and
acquire more nuanced and critical lenses through which to view the world around them and gain deeper understandings of
the historical legacies and injustices that inform the present (
Walsh Marr, 2019
). These conversations may also embolden
students to contribute their voices and experiences to subject-area classrooms and disrupt de
fi
cit narratives often told about
them (
Kumaravadivelu, 2003
).
1.3. Critical English Language Teaching
Over the last 25 years, Critical English Language Teaching (CELT) has emerged in response to uncritical approaches at
neoliberal universities. In the
fi
rst wave of CELT, scholars sought to explore learners
’
identities in the classroom, address issues
of power and identify the implications of English-only classrooms, analyze the impacts of ideological vs. pragmatic ap-
proaches to ELT, delve into the racialization of learners
’
identities and constructions of
“
culture
”
as a static construct, and
identify the repercussions of the ongoing legacy of colonial histories within TESOL (
Chun, 2018
, p. 5). The paradigms that
came out of this wave were anti-essentialist in nature and sought to highlight the potential for EAP to be compatible with
critical pedagogy.
Scholars such as
Hadley (2015)
and
Chun (2018)
have condemned the
“
commodi
fi
cation of ELT
”
(p. 2) as Intensive English
Programs are increasingly incentivized, by the institutions that house them, to function as service industries that draw
L. Mortenson / English for Speci
fi
c Purposes 65 (2022) 1
–
14
2
wealthy international students into universities.
Haque (2007)
has argued that employing critical pedagogy in EAP teaching is
futile if not undertaken with simultaneous critiques of the institutions in which the teaching occurs (p. 94). The challenge is
multiplied when efforts are undertaken in contexts that self-position as
“
neutral sites
”
rather than establishments that are
themselves ideologically motivated. The second wave of CELT sought to take up institutional critiques by addressing issues
related to neoliberalism (
Flores, 2013
;
Holborow, 2015
), emotion in the classroom (
Benesch, 2017
), ties between TESOL and
U.S. military recruitment (
Benesch, 2012
), as well as sexual identities and desire (
Appleby, 2013
;
Nelson, 2009
).
EB students in EAP programs come from many cultural and linguistic backgrounds, with a multiplicity of value systems,
histories, and goals that undergird their educational needs and inform what path their university studies will take. Alongside
these differences, students share the goal of competent performance across college-level curricula, which necessitates not
only a strong command of the English language but also content-based and cultural competencies to engage with historical
and contemporary societal issues (
Zamel & Spack, 2006
). Students are eager to engage with challenging content and as
Morgan and Vandrick (2009)
state, narratives have
“
immense power [
.
] to illuminate issues of war and peace, and to reveal
and forge connections among stories and peoples even when it appears that the historical political and religious barriers
among them are nearly insurmountable
”
(p. 528). In this way, use of narrative within CELT may bring students from varying
backgrounds to deeper understandings not only of content but also one another.
Von Esch et al. (2020)
identi
fi
es that
“
language teaching and learners
’
lives are shaped by our global history of racist practices of colonial expansion, including
settler colonialism and transatlantic slavery
”
(p. 391). English language teaching is deeply entrenched in legacies of colo-
nialism, racism, and Whiteness, and there is a gap in the literature regarding on-the-ground practitioners
’
efforts to decol-
onize their English language teaching through engaging learners with social justice-oriented content. This study contributes
to the literature by offering a case study look at my own teaching in an EAP Academic Writing Course and my use of a novel
about racism to dive more deeply into ideological content.
1.4. Research questions
Given the existing gap in the literature, the questions that guided my study were:
1. What are students
’
understandings of the histories of race and racism in the U.S. and its relevance to contemporary race
relations, and what connections, if any, do they draw between racism in the United States and injustices in their home
countries?
2. What are students
’
responses to instruction framed by Social Justice Pedagogy (SJP)?
3. How can the book
A Lesson Before Dying
by Ernest Gaines be used to teach students about historical and contemporary
race relations, and how can it be contextualized with additional materials?
2. Methods
2.1. Theoretical framing
2.1.1. Social Justice Pedagogy (SJP)
Social justice-oriented approaches to teaching rely on perspectives and histories that disrupt status quo understandings of
societal issues. Social Justice Pedagogy (SJP) actively addresses the
“
dynamics of oppression, privilege, and isms, recognizing
that society is the product of historically rooted, institutionally sanctioned strati
fi
cation along socially constructed group lines
that include race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and ability
”
(
Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017
, p. 350). This indicates that teachers
must provide students with the tools necessary to be critical consumers of information as well as re
fl
ect on their own so-
cialization into and positionality within inequitable social hierarchies. Some shared understandings among social justice
educators include:
1. Power is inequitably distributed amongst people in societies, and those who are at the bottom of the social hierarchy are
the least considered
2. While all people can express prejudicial views, only those at the top of the social structure are institutionally supported
in doing so
3. Being
“
for
”
social justice is a lifelong pursuit since we are socialized into an oppressive system; this requires sustained
commitment to unlearn patterns of thought and behavior that contribute to systemic inequities (adapted from
Sensoy &
DiAngelo, 2017
, p. 350).
For educators to
fi
nd the courage to engage with critical, social justice-oriented material and embrace pedagogies of
discomfort, bell
hooks (1994)
insists that one must
“
learn how to appreciate dif
fi
culty as a stage in intellectual development
[
.
and] accept that that cozy, good feeling may at times block the possibility of giving students space to feel that there is
integrity to be found in grappling with dif
fi
cult material
”
(p. 154). In the context of this academic writing class, I sought to
merge my personal responsibility as a white TESOL instructor to decolonize my practice with my aim to prepare EB students
to engage with their English language learning and university-level academic pursuits, critically.
L. Mortenson / English for Speci
fi
c Purposes 65 (2022) 1
–
14
3
2.1.2. Case study
Case study served as an appropriate research design as it allowed me to research the class I was teaching and the speci
fi
c
group of students within that class and allows for an
“
intensive, holistic description and analysis of a bounded phenomenon
such as a program, an institution, a person, a process, or a social unit
”
(
Merriam, 1988
, p. xiii). Such an approach fosters deep
investigation and analysis of a social group or culture (
Yin, 2017
) to seek greater understandings of an individual, group, or
program for a de
fi
ned period of time (
Leedy, Ormrod, & Johnson, 2019
). It is also a useful methodology when the goal is to
learn more about a
“
little known or poorly understood situation
”
(
Leedy et al., 2019
, p. 231). Given that EAP programs have
often avoided teaching ideological content, case study was a suitable design as I was researching an understudied area.
Case study can be used to examine changes in individuals or programs that occur over time because of certain conditions
or events (
Leedy et al., 2019
); by approaching my class as a
“
case,
”
I sought to better understand how students engage with
social justice-oriented material about historical and contemporary societal issues in the United States. I did not assume there
would be a
“
cause/effect
”
relationship between my teaching and students
’
learning; instead, I designed an exploratory study
to examine students
’
engagement with social justice-related materials to better gauge their background knowledge, un-
derstandings, and interpretations so that I could re
fi
ne and hone my attempts to integrate social justice materials into my EAP
teaching in the future.
2.2. Participants and research context
I conducted this study at a private, four-year university on the East Coast in the United States with students who were in
their
fi
rst or second year of the EAP program. There were about 230 students enrolled in the program during the Spring 2018
semester. Classes span across both undergraduate and graduate levels and include both credit-bearing and non-credit bearing
courses. Demographically, students in all programs represent over thirty-seven countries; however, most students come from
China. All students in the class were undergraduates of varied disciplinary backgrounds, and all were required to take several
semesters of English language instruction
d
including Academic Writing
d
prior to beginning their major area coursework.
Sixteen students participated in the study. Nine students identi
fi
ed themselves as male and seven identi
fi
ed themselves as
female.
1
Most participants were from China, and students also came from Vietnam, Saudi Arabia, Argentina, and Kazakhstan.
2.3. Data collection
Students participated in this study during the Spring 2018 semester in an Academic Writing class, and I was both the
instructor for the course as well as the primary researcher. The class met on campus, twice a week. I collected data for the
study by recording classes for later transcription and analysis, taking detailed
fi
eld notes, writing into a teaching journal after
each class, collecting and analyzing students
’
work in class and on assignments, and conducting interviews with students that
were audio recorded and transcribed for analysis. The skills-based academic writing objectives of the course identi
fi
ed in the
syllabus were that by the end of the semester, Students Would Be Able To:
Write for an academic audience using advanced grammar structures and vocabulary
Skim and scan for main idea and supporting ideas
Write essays and research papers using appropriate academic conventions
Incorporate critical reading strategies to successfully complete reading tasks
Analyze a variety of texts
Employ a variety of rhetorical strategies in their writing
Apply standard APA conventions for research and documentation
To achieve these objectives, students engaged in close and critical readings of the novel
A Lesson Before Dying
by Ernest
Gaines as well as book chapters and articles that are related to themes addressed in the novel.
Literature is commonly used to teach composition in American universities as it provides students with a window into the
lives of those whose experiences may be different from their own, engages students
’
imaginations, and prompts their
development of critical thinking through academic writing. It has also been used in ESL and EFL contexts to help develop
fundamental language skills such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking, and to further students
’
understandings of the
target culture (
Babaee & Yahya, 2014
;
Zengin Bas¸zal, & Yükselir, 2019
). I chose to use the novel
A Lesson Before Dying
because it
addresses the historical legacies of slavery, Jim Crow-era segregation, and racial discrimination. It is based on the true story of
Willie Francis, a young Black teenager who was sentenced to capital punishment in 1946 at the age of 16 after the killing of a
pharmacist, despite there being no physical evidence connecting him to the crime (
King, 2006
).
The novel centers protagonist Grant Wiggins
d
a Black school teacher who is highly educated but whose life and career
opportunities have been severely limited by racial discrimination. It also focuses on Jefferson
d
a young Black man who is
accused and convicted of murder after a liquor store shootout leaves three men dead and him as the sole survivor. Again
1
In keeping with current reference guidelines (APA 7) and my ethical responsibility to protect participants
’
identities, I use the third person singular
(they/them) when referring to individual participants throughout this article.
L. Mortenson / English for Speci
fi
c Purposes 65 (2022) 1
–
14
4
despite there being no evidence connecting him to the crime, Jefferson is sentenced to capital punishment for murder, and
Grant Wiggins is sought out by Jefferson
’
s family to impart wisdom on him before his death. The two men become close
during their counsel as they both identify with feelings of being oppressed within and by society, and they both believe in
resisting conformity. This novel highlights the experiences of two Black men in the 1940s, who are marginalized in different
and similar ways, and communicates the injustices experienced by Black people in Jim Crow-era United States. This novel can
serve as a starting point for discussing race relations, the ethics of the death penalty, and the criminal justice system in
present-day United States.
Students participated in formal and informal assignments throughout the semester to develop their writing skills through
drafting, revising, and polishing a number of essays in connection with the course novel (i.e. rhetorical analysis essay, literary
analysis essay, problem-solution essay, annotated bibliography, and
fi
nal research paper). They engaged in independent
research, small and large group conversations, and informed debates over themes addressed in the novel such as historical
treatment of Black people during slavery and Jim Crow-era United States, disparities in incarceration between white and Black
Indigenous and People of Color (BIPOC), and police brutality, among others.
2.4. Data sources and materials
Data sources for this study include audio recordings and transcriptions of classes, my
fi
eld notes, teaching journal, and
student-produced work throughout the semester, such as short writing assignments, essays, re
fl
ections, and contributions to
class debates. I also conducted interviews with students that were audio recorded and transcribed for later analysis (see
Table 1
for a summary of the database). Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was sought and obtained for the study from two
institutions
d
the university from which I was completing my doctorate, as this comprised part of my dissertation research, as
well as the university where I was teaching, and consent was sought and obtained from all participants to use their words in the
study. In the consent process, students were informed that their identities would be kept anonymous if they chose to
participate and that their decision to participate in or abstain from the study would not impact their grade in the course.
I was inspired to use the novel
A Lesson Before Dying
to initiate conversations with EB students over social justice-related
issues after reading the work of
Guerrettaz and Zahler (2017)
, who shared how the novel could be used to de-silence race in a
second language academic literacy course. This novel was an appropriate choice for the class given the surrounding socio-
political context; the course was taught in Spring 2018, when the Black Lives Matter movement had an active following after
instances of police brutality that resulted in the killings of Black men like Eric Garner, Michael Brown, Tamir Rice, Walter Scott,
and Philando Castille, among many others. I sought to utilize the book and the issues of injustice it foregrounds to deepen
students
’
understandings of the legacy of racism in the United States, encourage them to draw connections between in-
equities in the United States and those present in their home countries to motivate them to see themselves as agents of
change within historically oppressive systems.
In the class, students did independent research to inform their essay writing on themes of the book (such as justice, liber-
ation, marginalization, and equity), putting these themes and the rhetorical devices used to articulate them in conversation with
similar themes and rhetorical moves in poetry, for example in
“
Still I Rise
”
by Maya Angelou and
“
Let America be America Again
”
by Langston Hughes. Students watched the
fi
lm 13th produced by Ava DuVernay, read excerpts of
We Gon
’
Be Alright
by Jeff
Chang, watched videos and read articles about Kalief Browder, and read/watched articles/videos about the Black Lives Matter
movement to inform in-class conversations and debates
–
for example, over topics like whether or not the death penalty should
be allowed and whether or not prison abolition and abolishment of the police would result in greater societal harmony.
2.5. Data analysis
My data analysis for this case study research involved ongoing deconstruction and analysis of my initial observations to
develop deeper and more nuanced understandings (
Stakes, 1995
). Rather than seeing research as something that can be
completed in tidy, separate sections, I share the views of scholars like
Maxwell (2013)
and
Chang (2008)
who identify it as an
ongoing and interwoven process that is completed
“
in a web-like fashion
”
(p. 8), where data may be collected, organized, and
analyzed recursively throughout the research process. In my
fi
eld notes, I focused my attention on recording observable
phenomena (
Emerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 1995
), and bracketed my personal re
fl
ections and evaluations to separate my in-
terpretations of what was occurring from the observable actions themselves. To transcribe class sessions, I followed the advice
Table 1
Summary of database.
Methods
Description of data
Fieldnotes
- Recorded
fi
eld notes during class
Class Recordings
- Recorded and transcribed class conversations
Teaching Journal
- Maintained a teaching journal over the course of the semester where I re
fl
ected on
my lessons and the challenges and opportunities that arose.
Student-Produced Work
- Short writing assignments, quizzes, and essays
Exit Interviews with Students
- Eleven students opted to participate in interviews that ranged from 30 min to an hour.
Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed for later analysis
L. Mortenson / English for Speci
fi
c Purposes 65 (2022) 1
–
14
5
of
Grimm, Kaufman, and Doty (2014)
, who suggest documenting interactions between students and teachers as
“
scripts
”
of
reported speech from distinct actors.
I used verbatim coding (
Saldaña, 2021
) to honor participants
’
words, and I allowed themes to emerge from the data in the
process of coding (
Leedy et al., 2019
). To help with the coding and analysis process, I employed the qualitative software
program Dedoose. Scholars such as
Salmona, Kaczynski, and Lieber (2019)
have identi
fi
ed the value of web-based applications
such as Dedoose for categorizing, tagging, and analyzing qualitative or mixed methods social scienti
fi
c research. I used this
program to create a codebook, which served as a useful means to identify connections across my many data sources. I
uploaded transcripts of classes, interviews, my teaching journal, and student-produced work to the program. I then created
tags to identify themes across the data sources, and developed a codebook to organize umbrella
fi
ndings and sub-threads
within each category. Finally, I conducted secondary analyses of course documents and materials such as the syllabus,
short, informal re
fl
ection assignments, and quizzes. I employed
Creswell
’
s (2013)
data analysis spiral iteratively to organize
my data, get a sense of it overall, identify broad categories and themes, and classify
fi
ndings among those themes. I repeated
this process several times to locate discrepancies and/or allow for deeper meanings to emerge from initial observations.
2.6. Researcher positionality
I am a white, well-educated, English-speaking woman whose positionality brings with it unearned privileges. Given that
most educators in the U.S. are white (
National Center for Education Statistics, 2020
), and that being a native English speaker is
a raced category often associated with being white and therefore affords preferential treatment in TESOL (
Motha, 2006
), I
represent a privileged class. I sought to use my position and the unearned privileges that accompany it to undertake an
effort
d
however
fl
awed and incomplete
d
to initiate and document conversations with EB students about the sociopolitical
history of race relations in the United States that may foster awareness of connections between oppression across contexts. I
believe that being an accomplice for justice is practiced through everyday actions (
Kendall, 2021
), and as someone with
unearned privileges, I have a duty to use those advantages to challenge the status quo within the institutions of which I am a
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |