Information to users

America's Global Economic Reach (New York: Kodansha International, 1995), pp. 168.
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most important, legacy."18 Edwards argues that the history of the computer is inextricably tied to 'the elaboration of American grand strategy7' during the Cold War and that
computers 'made much of that strategy possible."19
Though much of the technology was initially produced
for specifically military uses, ideas such as the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network or ARPANet, which was created in 1969 by the United States Department of Defense to facilitate the sharing of research information and
findings, eventually became the backbone of what is known today as the Internet in the United States. Other types of communications technologies like small satellite receivers, were initially intended for communications use within the military.20
Government Intervention in Distribution
In addition to the development of information
technologies and content, the government played a policy role in their distribution throughout various public and private sectors in the United States.
18 Paul N. Edwards. The Closed World: Computers and the
Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1996), p. ix.
19 Edwards, The Closed World, p. 2.
20 See John F. Harris. 'In Electronic Battlefield Training
Exercise, 'Fog of War.'" Washington Post (24 April 1994), p. A18; and William B. Scott. 'Satellites Key to 'Infostructure" Aviation Week and Technology (14 March 1994), pp. 57-58.
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Such policy action began early in the country's
history. The 19th century was marked by connecting the
domestic landscape through the expansion of the railroads, the pony express crossing what were then 'foreign" lands, the laying of telegraph and telephone lines, and the laying of transatlantic cable. Communications developments at the time were mostly internal, in other countries as well as within the United States. The interest in these issues was both commercial and political. Developments such as the installation of telegraph and telephone lines led to greater internal cohesion and thus greater control of national
information flows.
Throughout most of the 2 0th century, US communications
policy was more oriented toward the private sector, helping industry to expand first domestically and then
internationally.
For example, in 1951, US President Harry Truman called
together a group of specialists to advise him on
communications policy. At that time in the United States, telephone, telegraph and radio were quite widely diffused while television was still in its infancy. The principal questions were about the government's role in managing both domestic and international telecommunications exchanges. Responses to questions about international cooperation were as yet unclear, but domestically the answers were to help 63
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the private sector. mThe private telecommunications industry of the United States is one of the nation's most valuable assets in peace or in war. . . It is essential that the industry be in sound economic condition. . . and [that] from time to time Government [be] of assistance to them in rate adjustments and other ways."21 Interventions such as this on behalf of business would be instrumental in the distribution of information technologies and services, as with the above mentioned growth of IBM or the expansion of AT&T until
divestiture in 1984.
More recently, there has been an attempt to emphasize
government intervention on behalf of the public. The United States has promoted a 'National Information Infrastructure," a technologically determinist position that envisions 'a future information society composed of individuals spending a major portion of their lives in front of a terminal
engaged in some form of electronic communication."22
The most important aspect of this Nil is that it must
reflect the 'coordinated national and international policies by [both] government and industry."23 In other words, policy
21 'Telecommunications: A Program for Progress," Report of
the President's Communications Policy Board (Washington, D.C.: OS Government Printing Office, 1951), pp. 10-11.
22 William H. Melody. 'Toward a Framework for Designing
Information Society Policies," Telecommunications Policy, 20 (no. ^{4) : 244.}23 Ibid., p. 245.
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must reflect both political and business interests. Since the Nil is a Western concept, the manifestation of this idea means that both government and business are involved in the formulation of information policy.
For example, the advent of the telephone gave rise to
the concept of universal access, ma public policy to spread telecommunications to most members of society."24 In the United States, universal access to the telephone has been largely achieved. The Nil, through the Telecommunications Act of 1996, has attempted to expand this to other 'advanced telecommunications and information services [which] should be provided in all regions of the nation."25 This has been interpreted as access to online services and there are
currently a number of programs designed to do this,
specifically assuring that all publicly-funded schools will be connected to the Internet.
Thus, there are certain principles and motivations on
which domestic information policy was based: 1) the search for markets (places to sell American made goods and
services), 2) the desire to maintain control of information flows (sovereignty), and 3) the protection of national
24 Eli M. Noam. 'Beyond Liberalization III: Reforming
Universal Service," Telecommunications Policy 18, no. 9 (1994) : ^{687 .}25 Compaine, Benjamin M. and Mitchell J. Weinraub. 'Universal access to Online Serivces: An Examination of the Issue."