Inclusion and education

TEXTBOOKS SUPPORT INCLUSION 
THROUGH CONTENT AND ACCESSIBILITY
Textbooks, an essential part of curricula, are crucial for 
promoting inclusion (Fuchs and Bock, 2018). An inclusive 
textbook development approach employs inclusive 
language, represents diverse identities and integrates 
human rights (UNESCO, 2017). Civic education, social 
studies, history, geography, religion and ethics textbooks, 
in particular, should include human and citizen rights. 
Inclusion and exclusion in a range of social and historical 
contexts should be represented to foster awareness of 
challenges. Even textbooks that deal with diversity may 
avoid critical discussion of complex and controversial 
topics. Diversity may appear as a special topic rather 
than a normal feature of social coexistence. Ethnic or 
religious groups may be marginalized and certain minority 
stereotypes perpetuated (Niehaus, 2018).
Inclusiveness also requires making textbooks available 
to all learner groups. Technology can support learning 
materials in various formats, such as Braille, large print, 
sign language and audiobooks. Teachers and schools 
should be able to select the learning materials best suited 
to their community (
Box 5.2
).
Textbooks can exclude through omission and 
misrepresentation
Textbooks and the legitimate knowledge they convey 
emerge from complex power dynamics (Apple and 
Christian-Smith, 1991). They can perpetuate gender biases 
and stereotypes through visual or written content but 
also by omission. Representation of ethnicity in textbooks 
depends largely on historical and national context.
Factors influencing countries’ treatment of minorities 
BOX 5.2: 
The ability to select from a range of textbooks is 
another dimension of inclusion
Textbook and learning material policies in the region vary in 
terms of degree of autonomy in selection and availability of 
different titles for a given subject. Ministries or other education 
authorities assess textbooks based on numerous criteria and 
quality standards and determine which can be used. But even 
when teachers are granted autonomy in selection, the choice is 
often limited.
In Armenia, schools can choose between two textbooks, but a 
study showed that often schools do not receive the textbooks 
they chose (Transparency International, 2017). In Azerbaijan, new 
textbook development procedures enable education resources 
to be purchased from a list of recommended supplementary 
learning materials approved by the School Pedagogical Council. 
In Hungary, the Education Authority is the dominant publisher, 
and there is very little variety in textbooks available per grade and 
subject for schools to choose from. The Education Authority also 
controls accreditation for textbooks and learning materials.
In North Macedonia, schools have no autonomy in textbook 
selection and only one book is approved per subject, except 
those using imported textbooks, for which up to three can be 
selected from an approved list. However, curricula and guidelines 
enable teachers to use other learning materials to prepare 
themselves and provide guidance, links and texts to students 
that can contribute to achievement of learning goals. In Poland, 
all textbooks must be approved by the Ministry of National 
Education, but there is no such procedure for other learning 
materials. The teacher can decide to teach with or without a 
textbook and other learning materials.
Inclusion is best served through bilingual 
schools where the ethnic majority and 
minority learn together in both languages 
and the common curriculum includes and 
is representative of both groups
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GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 2021

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include the demographic, political or economic dominance 
of one or more ethnic groups; the history of segregation 
or conflict; the conceptualization of nationhood; the 
role of immigration; and various combinations of these 
factors. Textbooks may acknowledge minority groups 
in ways that mitigate or exacerbate the degree to which 
they are received, or perceive themselves, as ‘other’ (Fuchs 
et al., 2020).
Many countries in the region have laws, rules or 
regulations that ensure the availability of textbooks 
or learning materials promoting inclusion of ethnic 
minorities. In Belarus, learning materials in minority 
languages are available only as supplements. In 
Montenegro, all primary and secondary school textbooks 
are translated into Albanian, but the Albanian community 
has protested that this means they are not sufficiently 
adapted to its needs (Tomovic, 2014). There is a textbook 
on Albanian language and literature, but not for history. 
The government has indicated that the reformed 
curriculum integrates content promoting minorities’ 
history and culture, and enables teachers to create and 
adapt up to a fifth of a subject’s content to student needs 
(Montenegro Ministry of Human and Minority Rights, 2016).
Following the break-up of the Soviet Union, Central 
Asian countries developed state language schools and 
tried to strengthen state language teaching. Textbook 
supply chains had collapsed, however, which damaged 
education quality. For instance, in Kazakhstan, less than 
40% of sanctioned textbooks were available in Kyrgyz and 
Russian and even less in Uzbek and Tajik. In Kazakhstan 
and Kyrgyzstan, primary and secondary schools choose 
target languages for subjects based on teacher capacity, 
context and resources. The most successful pilot schools 
became resource centres for new schools, providing 
multilingual content and teaching materials. The High 
Commissioner on National Minorities of the Organization 
for Security and Co-operation in Europe supported 
the establishment of an Uzbek language textbook 
development and publishing centre in Osh, Kyrgyzstan. 
The recent adoption of a trilingual education policy in 
Kazakhstan made it possible to increase provision of new 
Tajik, Uighur and Uzbek primary school textbooks and 
learning materials (Stoianova and Angermann, 2018).
In much of Europe, Roma and traveller children are at 
high risk of exclusion in education through curriculum 
and textbook deficiencies. They are disproportionately 
likely to be taught a reduced curriculum, as they are often 
sent to remedial classes and special schools (Council of 
Europe, 2017). Moreover, the core curriculum does not 
reflect their history. The Council of Europe’s Committee of 
Experts on Roma and Traveller Issues is working towards 
a recommendation on the inclusion of their history in 
curricula and teaching materials (Council of Europe, 2019). 
In Bulgaria, where students can choose elective subjects 
on Roma history and traditions, specially developed 
teaching aids and exercise books are available.