Inclusion and education

Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all 
levels’ aimed at the ‘full development of human potential 
and sense of dignity and self-worth, and the strengthening 
of respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms and 
human diversity’ and the development by people with 
disabilities ‘of their personality, talents and creativity, as 
well as their mental and physical abilities, to their fullest 
potential’ (United Nations, 2006).
Article 24 was hotly debated, for instance on questions 
related to the ‘best interest’ of the child, scope and 
coverage and where education should take place (UNDESA, 
2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2004d). During negotiations in final 
drafting, the text shifted from children with disabilities’ 
right to education (maintained until the sixth session) to 
their right to inclusive education. However, the issue of 
placement, or where education should take place, was not 
settled, and the final text does not include an obligation 
to educate children with disabilities in mainstream schools 
(Kanter, 2019).
Such tensions led the Committee on the Rights of Persons 
with Disabilities, in September 2016, to formulate General 
Comment No. 4 on Article 24 (Committee on the Rights 
of Persons with Disabilities, 2016). It acknowledged the 
persistent discrimination against people with disabilities, 
which denies many the right to education; a lack of 
awareness about barriers that impede fulfilment of the 
right to education and a lack of knowledge about inclusive 
education, its potential and its implications; and the 
need for clarification and definition of inclusive education 
and strategies for implementation (Hunt, 2020). It also 
stated that the exclusion of persons with disabilities 
from the general education system should be prohibited, 
including through any legislative or regulatory provisions 
that limit their inclusion on the basis of their impairment 
or the degree of that impairment or ‘by alleging a 
disproportionate and undue burden to evade the obligation 
to provide reasonable accommodation’ (Section 2, §18).
The 1960 UNESCO Convention against 
Discrimination in Education was ratified 
by 25 of the 30 countries in the region
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The 2017 European Pillar of Social Rights establishes good-quality and 
inclusive education, training and lifelong learning as a right, a priority and 
a shared endeavour, while respecting the diversity of education traditions
The view of inclusion as a dimension of education of 
good quality for all learners was also taken in the Incheon 
Declaration of the World Education Forum 2015, which 
confirmed the international community’s support of 
Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) on education 
and its call to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality 
education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for 
all’ by 2030. The declaration stated: 
‘Inclusion and equity in and through education is 
the cornerstone of a transformative education 
agenda, and we therefore commit to addressing all 
forms of exclusion and marginalization, disparities 
and inequalities in access, participation and learning 
outcomes. No education target should be considered 
met unless met by all. We therefore commit to 
making the necessary changes in education policies 
and focusing our efforts on the most disadvantaged, 
especially those with disabilities, to ensure that no one 
is left behind’ (Article 7). 
This approach, which recognized that mechanisms of 
exclusion were common, regardless of background, ability 
or identity, underpinned the use of the term ‘inclusive’ in 
the formulation of SDG 4.
European Union policies have influenced many 
countries in the region
While the responsibility for education and training 
systems lies with individual countries, the European Union 
(EU) has played a key role supporting not only member 
states but also candidates and potential members as well 
as, to some extent, its eastern neighbours in developing 
inclusive education capacity through financial support and 
policy cooperation.
In the case of EU member states, the 2017 European 
Pillar of Social Rights established good-quality and 
inclusive education, training and lifelong learning 
as a right, a priority and a shared endeavour, while 
respecting the diversity of education traditions (European 
Commission, 2020a
). The principles of an equitable, high-
quality education for all have been reinforced through 
communications and recommendations covering support 
for teachers and school leaders and more effective and 
efficient governance, as well as action plans targeting 
specific groups, such as migrants and those of migrant 
background (European Commission, 2020b).
The EU open method of coordination, a non-binding policy 
dialogue process based on benchmarking and peer learning, 
which applies in a range of policy areas,
was used in education through the Education and Training 
2020 framework. An annual European Education and 
Training Monitor followed progress towards quantitative 
targets for the European Union as a whole and in 
agreement with individual member states, in line with 
SDG 4, and was a basis for identifying challenges. This 
process is to be strengthened through the establishment 
of a European Education Area by 2025.
The role of education in EU external policy is growing 
through cooperation in programmes such as Erasmus+ and 
regional dialogue on education and training. The Western 
Balkan countries, in particular, benefited from increased 
funding in 2019 and 2020.
Realization of the right to inclusive education in 
the region varies by country
Countries in the region have fulfilled the right to 
education, as enshrined in international instruments 
and declarations, in their constitutions, laws, policies and 
programmes in a variety of ways. Some, such as Bosnia 
and Herzegovina, have focused narrowly on the right to 
education while others refer to inclusive education as an 
integral part of this right (e.g. Bulgaria) or stress equal 
access to an inclusive system of education for all
(e.g. Georgia). Kazakhstan refers to children’s right 
to attend school at their place of residence and to 
receive assistance with psychological, medical and 
education issues.
The CRC is being integrated in national documents. 
Albania’s national agenda on child rights, a 
multidisciplinary framework, aims to have all national 
and local action reflect the convention’s provisions. 
Mongolia’s 2017–21 national programme supporting 
children’s development and participation sets out to 
create a child-friendly environment where all children 
develop their talents and skills, where children are listened 
to and respected, and where they can participate in policy 
development, implementation and evaluation. In Romania, 
the 2014–20 National Strategy for the Protection and 
Promotion of Children’s Rights focuses on the most 
disadvantaged children.
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The CRPD has had a distinct influence, as the case of Ukraine 
attests (
Box 2.1
). In total, 29 of the 30 education systems 
reviewed include rights of people with disabilities in their 
constitution and/or in laws on education, non-discrimination, 
social protection and social inclusion. In Bulgaria, a 
2015 action plan on CRPD implementation and the 
promotion of inclusive education was expected to have an 
impact on legislation. Lithuania, Romania and Serbia focus 
on non-discrimination, tackling segregation in particular. 
Other countries, including Latvia, the Republic of Moldova 
and Slovenia, focus on rights within education, e.g. the right 
to supports such as sign language interpreters.
Despite the strong message of General Comment 
No. 4 that Article 24 is not compatible with sustaining both 
mainstream and special or segregated systems, tensions 
remain. In striving to provide parental choice, ministries may 
be reluctant to close special schools, reflecting a view that 
separate provision is not of inferior quality.
The Azerbaijan State Programme on Inclusive Education 
promotes inclusive education in name, but in practice 
supports ‘integration’ of people with disabilities and still 
advocates special education in the delivery of vocational 
training for learners with disabilities. Belarus intends 
amendments to its Law on Social Protection of Persons 
with Disabilities to include the concepts of reasonable 
accommodation and universal design, together with a 
revised approach to disability that moves away from 
the medical model, which relies on medical diagnoses to 
categorize students and determine their access to special 
support and services.
Kyrgyzstan’s law on rights and guarantees for people 
with disabilities provides an interdisciplinary approach 
to education of children with disabilities, in collaboration 
with social protection and health care services. However, it 
includes the possibility of studying in special schools or at 
home. In Mongolia, there is a lack of coherence in the use of 
terminology on special education between the Law on the 
Rights of People with Disabilities and the Law on Primary 
and Secondary Education. 
Romania’s law on protection and promotion of rights of 
people with disabilities regulates access to all forms of 
education for this group and the right to education support. 
Strategies and programmes relating to the CRPD have also 
been developed in Albania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, 
Georgia, Kosovo,
1
Mongolia, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia and 
Ukraine, and some include costed action plans.
A move towards a rights-based approach considers both 
the right to education and rights within