Iberian Peninsula to the indus

Bibliography:
Azara, Nicolau et al. 
2000, p. 174, no. 62; Ligabue, Rossi-
Osmida 2006, p. 159.
An elegant figure with all the 
characteristics of the Dokathismata 
variety, flat body and bulging buttocks 
and breasts, without the audacious 
openings of arms and legs of the 
previous work 
(no. XX
). Probably from 
the Keros hoard.
C.A.

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120
CYPRUS

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123
122
chAlcolithic cypruS
T
he depiction of the human figure on cyprus spans many thousands of years 
and the figurative material is rich and abundant. depending on the chron-
ological period, figurines come in a variety of forms and types of material. 
recent research focusing on cypriot prehistoric figurines has become increasingly 
more multidisciplinary, with contributions from a wide range of fields, such as bio-
archaeology, anthropology, sociology, gender studies and ethnography. furthermore, 
the archaeology of the body, a fairly recent field in cypriot archaeology, has enhanced 
our understanding of prehistoric communities on cyprus.
prehistoric figurines would have been symbolically charged objects with an active 
role in the construction, maintenance and negotiation of personal and social identities 
of ancient communities. their various interpretations address a variety of issues, such 
as ritual behaviour, political power, social identity and gender roles, just to mention 
a few. unfortunately, the study and interpretation of cypriot prehistoric figurines is 
often confronted with obstacles, such as lack of information on provenance (a large 
percentage are products of illicit excavation, for example), or the fact that they are 
not often found in the context of their primary usage (they are often discovered as 
grave goods or as part of ritual hoards).
the earliest anthropomorphic figurines from cyprus, two made of stone and 
one of baked clay, have been unearthed at the pre-pottery neolithic A (ppnA) site 
of Agia Varvara-Asprokremmos (ca. 9000 Bc) (
fig. 1
). these figurines seem to be 
associated with the site’s abandonment episodes, acting perhaps as “gifts” on top 
of the abandonment fill of structures. from the following pre-pottery neolithic B 
period (8400–6400 Bc) a plaster anthropomorphic head has been found at the site 
of parekklisha-Shillourokambos and from the site of Kritou-marottou-Ais Giorkis
 
(ca.
 
7500 Bc) comes the lower part of a female figurine with characteristic incised 
decoration, possibly representing female genitalia.
human representations next appear in the seventh millennium Bc and most come 
from the uneSco World heritage site of choirokoitia (
cat n° 25
). these very sche-
matic figurines demonstrate high levels of workmanship. most are carved in solid 
igneous stone, (andesite, diabase and serpentine) although the site has produced 
an exceptional human head modelled in clay (
fig. 2
). the modelling of the body of 
late Aceramic neolithic figurines is abstract in form, and although no explicit gen-
der characteristics are indicated on most examples, some display an unmistakable 
phallic-shaped neck and head, a characteristic that continues into the chalcolithic 
cruciforM figure cypruS
Cyprus
Chalcolithic period
(IV millennium BC)
Ligabue Collection, Venice
(cat. 32)

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125
124
1
Schematic female figure
Agia Varvara-Asprokremmos, Cyprus
VII–VI millennia BC
Limestone
Department of Antiquities Cyprus, 
Nicosia, inv. G848
period. A few examples are ambiguous or dimorphic, traits that also persist until the 
end of the fourth millennium. 
the ceramic neolithic period (5500–3900 Bc) has yielded a much lower number 
of figurines. the small number that has been unearthed continue to be schematic 
and to demonstrate sexual ambiguity or dimorphism. Such ambiguous figurines have 
been found at the ceramic neolithic settlements of Sotira-teppes (
cat. n° 24
), Ayios 
epiktitos-Vrysi, Kantou-Kouphovounos and Sotira-Arkolies.
the picture changes quite dramatically in the early and middle chalcolithic period 
(ca. 3900–2800 Bc), a period of social and economic transformation. At this time, 
there is evidence for a substantial population growth, as well as signs of social ine-
qualities and intensified contact with neighbouring regions. this is also the period 
when copper was first used in cyprus. this resource would later bring great pros-
perity to the island and would finally take its name from cyprus itself. it is within this 
general framework that a highly distinctive sculptural tradition developed, suggesting 
an island-wide symbolic system. in comparison with late neolithic anthropomorphs, 
in the chalcolithic period figurines are higher in number and more stylized. there 
is definitely an increased interest in the depiction of the human form and the use 
of clay and painted decoration contributed towards the production of anthropo-
morphic figurines, statuettes and vessels with more detailed features, such as facial 
characteristics, toes and fingers, jewellery, clothing and perhaps body painting and/
or tattoos. the painted decoration noted on the clay figurines is elaborate and re-
sembles that of the pottery repertoire of the period. figurines now bear a variety of 
painted designs, such as latticing, vertically hatched panels, wavy and parallel lines. 
on chalcolithic figurines there is also a tendency to indicate or emphasise gender 
(most of the figurines that preserve indications of gender are female) and it seems 
that they address themes related to sexuality, fertility and reproduction. nevertheless, 
sexual ambiguity is a characteristic that continues from the neolithic period. one of 
the most emblematic sculptures of the chalcolithic, the famous “lemba lady” (see 
cat. n° 27
) expresses such an ambiguity or dimorphism, with the figure’s incised 
female breasts, genitalia, swollen belly and broad hips greatly contrasting with the 
phallic-shaped head.
the hallmark of the cypriot chalcolithic is no doubt the very distinctive cruciform 
anthropomorph that is known primarily from sites in SW cyprus (e.g. erimi-pambou-
la, lemba-lakkous, Souskiou-laona, Souskiou-Vathyrkakas, Kissonerga-mosphilia 
and Kissonerga-mylouthkia). more than 100 examples of this form are known, pre-
dominantly made from picrolite (
cat.n° 28-32
) but also of limestone and clay and 
discovered in early and middle chalcolithic. picrolite, a green-blue soft indigenous 
stone of the troodos ophiolithic formation, was already sculpted in the ppnA and 
ppnB, but in the chalcolithic its use dramatically increased. picrolite is seen by re-
searchers as a high status material and therefore the figurines that were sculpted out 
of this resource are considered to have been prestige items within the chalcolithic 
communities. the bent knees and outstretched arms of cruciform figurines suggest 
birthing postures: a parturient mother would have been squatting and probably held 
from behind by assistants, as seen in later, cypro-Archaic figurines. the chalcolithic 
picrolite cruciforms vary in style and size, ranging from schematised grooved or 
pierced pendants that measure only a few centimetres (worn individually or with 
shell necklaces), to larger examples, such as the famous cruciform from yialia (15 
cm tall) (
fig. 3
) that is depicted on the reverse of the cyprus one and two euro coins. 
2
Human head
Choirokoitia, Cyprus
IV millennium BC
Unbaked clay
Department of Antiquities Cyprus, 
Nicosia, inv. Khir. 1063
3
Cruciform and phallic female figure 
wearing a similar figure as necklace
Yialia, Cyprus
IV millennium BC
Picrolite
Department of Antiquities Cyprus, 
Nicosia, inv. 1934/III-2/2

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126
this figure wears a pendant around its neck of a smaller representation of itself. 
the meaning and use of the picrolite anthropomorphic figurines and pendants 
has been much discussed and interpretations vary. they are seen as fertility deities 
or birth charms. they have also been interpreted as teaching props for initiation 
ceremonies, vehicles for sympathetic magic or symbolic images of fertility and ma-
ternity. it has also been suggested that they would have emphasized the individu-
ality of community members, enhancing their social identities. Such figurines have 
been found both in chalcolithic tombs and settlements, such as at the necropolis of 
Souskiou-Vathyrkakas and the settlement of Souskiou-laona, where there is evidence 
for the production of picrolite cruciform figurines. 
numerous clay figurines also survive dated to the chalcolithic period. most of 
these seem to be depicting females involved in activities linked with birthing and 
rearing children. they are often shown squatting, with swollen bellies and large 
hips, sometimes seated on birthing stools, in the act of birthing, with their hands on 
their breasts or even extracting milk from their breasts. their heads are disk-like 
with facial features that in some cases are abstract and in others naturalistic. their 
bodies are often richly decorated with incised or painted decoration indicating body 
adornment and anatomical details, in some cases modelled very realistically. the 
fragmentary condition of these clay birthing figurines, the abrasion patterns noted 
on them, as well as the fact that they have mainly been found in settlement contexts 
suggest that they were probably handled in daily life during various stages of the 
life cycle. 
A unique deposit of representational art indicating ritual activity was excavated 
at the chalcolithic settlement of Kissonerga-mosphilia, in the pafos district, where 
a ceremonial area was unearthed comprising of pits filled with ash, heat-cracked 
stones and clay vessels. in one of the pits, a red-on-White painted building model 
was found, containing around fifty objects. these included anthropomorphic figurines 
(ten of stone and eight of pottery), anthropomorphic vessels, a terracotta model stool, 
a complete triton shell, a bone needle, as well as various groundstone pebbles and 
tools. All the objects were found ceremoniously packed in and around the building 
model and several of the figurines depict women in the act of giving birth. Among 
them is a unique pottery figurine depicting a parturient female: a baby’s head and 
arms are shown, in red paint, emerging between her parted legs (missing) (
fig. 4
). 
originally, the figurine would have sat on a birthing stool, in a position that is known 
in the figurine assemblage of this period. the woman is wearing a cruciform pen-
dant around her neck, confirming the important link between cruciform figurines/
pendants and childbirth. the different types and wear patterns on the