Iacobus Leodiensis [Iacobus de Montibus, Iacobus de Oudenaerde]

Ichiyanagi, Toshi

(b Kobe, 4 Feb 1933). Japanese composer and pianist. After taking lessons in composition with Ikenouchi and the piano with Chieko Hara, he went to study at the Juilliard School in 1952. He met Cage and was deeply influenced by his ideas. Ichiyanagi soon became active as a pianist and composer, giving experimental performances that often included chance procedures. He returned to Japan in 1961 and continued activities of the same nature; he organized concerts, took part in concerts sponsored by the Society for 20th-Century Music, founded the New Directions group (1963) and collaborated with Takemitsu in arranging the Orchestral Space Festival (1966). Piano Media (1972) marks his return to strict notation and demonstrates his use of repetition, a characteristic that permeated his many large-scale works in traditional Western genres. He has won the Otaka Prize four times, with the first and second piano concertos, the Violin Concerto and the Symphony ‘Berlin Renshi’. At the end of the 1970s he also began to compose Japanese traditional music, such as Ogenraku (1980). He has promoted both Western contemporary music, becoming a director of the Interlink Festival (1984) and an adviser to the National Theatre (1991), and new Japanese traditional music, becoming a director of the Tokyo International Music Ensemble (1989).

WORKS

(selective list)

Op: Momo (3, after M. Ende), 1995

Orch: Pf Conc. no.1 ‘Reminiscence of Spaces’, 1981; Vn Conc. ‘Circulating Scenery’, 1983; Pf Conc. no.2 ‘Winter Portrait’, 1987; Sym. ‘Berlin Renshi’, S, T, orch, 1988; Pf Conc. no.3 ‘Cross Water Roads’, 1991; Sym. no.2 ‘Undercurrent’, 1993; Sym. no.5 ‘Time Perspective’, 1997

Chbr and solo inst: Sapporo, any number of players, 1962; Piano Media, pf, 1972; Music for Living Process, ens, 2 dancers, 1973; Time Sequence, pf, 1976; Recurrence, fl, cl, hp, pf, perc, 1979; Time in Tree, Time in Water, pf, perc, 1981; Paganini Personal, mar, pf, 1982; Str Qt no.2 ‘Interspace’, 1986; Trio ‘Interlink’, str trio, 1990

with Jap. insts: Ogenraku, gagaku ens, 1980; Enenraku, gagaku ens, 1982; Hoshi no Wa, shō, 1983; Still Time I, shō, 1986; Winter Portrait II, koto, 1986; Reigaku Sym. ‘The Shadows Appearing through Darkness’, ancient insts, gagaku ens, shōmyō (chanting vv), 1987; Ten, Zui, Ho, Gyaku, shakuhachi, ondes martenot, 1988; Transfiguration of the Moon, vn, shō, 1988; Reigaku Sym. no.2 ‘Kokai’, gagaku ens, reigaku ens, shōmyō, 1989; Tenryuji, ryūteki, shakuhachi, shō, koto, ondes martenot, perc, 1992; Unchu Kuyo Bosatsu, gagaku ens, reigaku ens, shōmyō, 1994; Spiritual Sight, gagaku ens, reigaku ens, shōmyō, vc, 1996

Vocal: Extended Voices, chorus, 1967; Requiem, male chorus, 1985

El-ac: Activities, elec ens, orch, 1967; Appearance, 3 insts, 2 oscillators, 2 ring mod, 1967; Music for Living Space, chorus, cptr, 1969; Theatre Music, tape, 1969; Environmental Music, nos.1–3, tape, 1970

Principal publishers: Schott, Peters

WRITINGS

Oto o kiku [Listening to sounds] (Tokyo, 1984)

Ongaku toiu itonami [Music and the contemporary age] (Tokyo, 1998)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

KdG (T.M. Maier)

K. Stockhausen: Texte, iii (Cologne, 1971), 236, 260–61, 279, 281

K. Akiyama: Nihon no sakkyokukatachi [Japanese composers], i (Tokyo, 1978), 247–71

K. Hori, ed.: Nihon no sakkyoku nijusseiki [Japanese compositions in the 20th century] (Tokyo, 1999)

MASAKATA KANAZAWA/SUSUMU SHONO

Iconography.

The study of visual representations, their significance and interpretation.

I. Introduction

II. Sources

III. Themes

IV. Depictions

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TILMAN SEEBASS

Iconography

I. Introduction

1. Terminology.

The terms ‘iconography’.and ‘iconology’, were created by 16th-century humanists for the study of emblems, portraits on coins and other pictorial evidence from ancient archaeology. They referred to the description (Gk: graphein) or interpretation (Gk: logos) of the content of pictures as regards both visual symbolism and factual research. When, in the 19th century, art history became established as an academic discipline, a comprehensive analytical method was developed in which content and form became the main subjects of analysis. From then on, scholars used the terms ‘iconography’ and ‘iconology’ when they referred to the study of content as opposed to the study of form or style. In musicology, however, both approaches continued to exist, side by side. The twofold meaning remains an obstacle to the unequivocal usage of the term. Some treat the visual arts as supplier of special information pertinent to musical facts, using musical iconography as an ancillary tool for research in the pictorial documentation of instruments and performance. Others consider an image with musical subject matter as a work of art in its own right, using musical iconography towards research in the vision and visualization of music.

2. Method.

Any pictorial document requires for its interpretation an understanding of visual aesthetics. This is especially true for pictures dealing with a topic as invisible and immaterial as the world of sound. The musical iconographer must therefore be familiar with art-historical iconology as well as fulfilling the obvious methodological requirement of expertise in organology and performing practice. Exemplary descriptions of this method come from members of the Warburg school (see for example Panofsky, B1939, and Białostocki, B1963): the student should first describe the formal elements of a picture and deal with the factual meaning of each element; secondly, he or she must take account of the cultural convention that influenced the depiction of those elements, tracing them back to a story or a scene, and discussing any intended ‘transnatural’, allegorical or metaphorical meaning (this is the stage of descriptive analysis that Panofsky called iconography); at the third level, the scholar may establish an iconology of the intrinsic meaning of the picture and discuss it as a manifestation of the artist's personality, the patron's ambitions and the onlooker's expectations. Iconology explains the picture as a paradigm of a given culture.

An analogy with the terms ‘ethnography’ and ‘ethnology’ may be illuminating. Iconography, of course, assumes knowledge of comparative material, leading to an informed description with qualitative weighting; iconology implies intellectual penetration on a hermeneutical level. Musicologists have come to adopt these methodological ideas for their purposes, and in the 1970s and 80s came to consider their particular relevance for musical iconography. Emanuel Winternitz advocated the term ‘musical iconology’, although he himself rarely penetrated to the analytical level that it implies. That term, because it is so loaded, is rarely used.

More recently, art history, like musicology has paid increasing attention to semantic pluralism in matters of interpretation. In musical iconography this pertains both to the subject matter (the way music has been appreciated in the course of time) and the medium (the way a painting has been seen in the course of time). Hence in musical iconography the hermeneutial equation operates with two unknowns because the codes for what can be represented in the visual medium and what can be performed in the aural one are not the same. For example: there was never a place where the hierarchy of pictorial genres was more codified than in France during the ancien régime. This must be taken into account in explaining the absence of representations of musicians in the iconography of ceremonies at that time. The cultural code assigned to minstrels was so low on the scale of pictorial subjects that they could not be allowed to appear in pictures although they played a crucial role in the ceremony itself (Charles-Dominique, E1996). But there are contrary examples: musical caricatures and satirical images can represent music that is not aurally acceptable or feasible.

Furthermore, analysis can be complicated by the juxtaposition of different cultures, when the creator of the picture, although a witness of the event, is not part of the music culture. Thus pictures even including photographs made by colonial explorers, travellers or ethnomusicologists originate with authors from a culture different from the one they are depicting. Here the second unknown in the equation appears whenever tensions arise between an ‘emic’ and an ‘etic’ viewpoint (in the literal sense).

Iconography