И. Р. Гальперин стилистика английского языка

1. ORATORY AND SPEECHES

The oratorical s ty I e of language is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. It has already been pointed out that persuasion is the most obvious purpose of oratory.
"Oratorical speech", writes A. Potebnya, "seeks not only to secure the understanding and digesting of the idea, but also serves * simultaneously as a spring setting off a mood (which is the aim) that may lead to action." l
Direct contact with the listeners permits a combination of the syn­tactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. In its leading features, however, oratorical style belongs to the written variety of language, though it is modified by the oral form of the utterance and the use of gestures. Certain typical fea­tures of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are: direct ad­dress to the audience (ladies and gentlemen, honourable member(s), the use of the 2nd person pronoun you, etc.), sometimes contractions (/'//, won't, haven't, isn't and,others) and the use of colloquial words.
This style is evident in speeches on political and social problems of the day, in orations and addresses on solemn occasions, as public weddings, funerals and jubilees, in sermons and debates and also in the speeches'of counsel and judges in courts of law.
Political speeches fall into two categories: parliamentary debates, and speeches at rallies, congresses, meetings and election campaigns.
Sermons deal mostly with religious subjects, ethics and morality; sometimes nowadays they take up social and political problems as well.
Orations on solemn public occasions are typical specimens of this style and not a few of their word sequences and phrases are ready-made phrases or cliches.
The sphere of application of oratory is confined to an appeal to an audience and therefore crucial issues in such spheres as science, art, literature, or business relations are not touched upon except perhaps by allusion. .If such ргоЫётз are dealt with in oratorical style the ef­fect is humorous. The following extract from "Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club" by Charles Dickens is ^ parody of an oration.
— "But I trust, Sir", said Pott, "that I have never abused the enormous power I wield. I trust, Sir, that I have never point­ed the noble instrument which is placed in my hands, against the sacred bosom of private life, of the tender breast of individual reputation;— I trust, Sir, that I have devoted my energies to—to endeavours—humble they may be, humble I know they are—to instil those principles of—which—are—."
— Here the editor of the Eatonswill Gazette appearing to ram­ble, Mr. Pickwick came to his relief, and said — "Certainly."—
The stylistic devices employed in oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. If the desire of the speaker is to rouse the audience and to keep it in suspense, he will use various traditional stylistic devices. But undue prominence given to,the form may lead to an exaggerated use of these devices, to embellishment.
Tradition is very powerful in oratorical style and the 16th century rhetorical principles laid down by Thomas Wilson in his "Arte of Rhe-torique" are sometimes still used in modern oratory, though, on the whole, modern oratory tends to lower its key more and more, confining itself to a quiet business-like exposition of ideas. Stylistic devices are closely interwoven and mutually complementary thus building up an intricate pattern. For example, antithesis is framed by parallel construc­tions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition, while climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds.
As the audience rely only on memory, the speaker often resorts to repetitions to enable his listeners to follow him and retain the main points of his speech. Repetition is also resorted to in order to convince the audience, to add weight to the speaker's opinion.
The following extract from the speech of the American Confederate general, A. P. Hill, on the ending of the Civil War in the U.S.A. is an example of anaphoric repetition:
"It is high time this people had recovered from the passions of war. It is high time that counsel were taken from statesmen” not demagogues'... It is high time the people of the North and the South understood each other and adopted means to inspire confidence in each other."
Further, anadiplosis is used:
"The South will not secede again. That was her great folly— folly against her own interest, not wrong against you.
A mere repetition of the same idea and in the same linguistic form may bore- the audience and destroy the speaker-audience contact, there­fore synonymic phrase repetition is used instead, thus fill'ing up the speech with details and embellishing it, as in this excerpt from a speech on Robert Burns:
"For Burns exalted our race, he hallowed Scotland and the Scottish tongue. Before his time we had f&r a long period been scarcely recognized', we had been falling out of the recollection of the world. From the time of the Union of the Crowns, and still more from the legislative union, Scotland had lapsed into obscuri­ty. Except for an occasional riot or a Jacobite rising, her exist­ence was almost forgotten."
Here synonymic phrase repetition ('been scarcely recognized', 'falling out of the recollection of the world', 'had lapsed into obscurity1, 'her existence was almost forgotten') is coupled with climax.
Repetition can be regarded as the most typical stylistic device of English oratorical style. Almost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, antithesis, suspense, climax, rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative. It will be no exaggeration to say that almost all the typical syntactical stylistic devices can be found in English ora­tory. Questions are most frequent because they promote closer contact with the audience. The change of intonation breaks the monotony of the intonation pattern and revives the attention of the listeners.
The desire of the speaker to convince and to rouse his audience re­sults in the use of simile and metaphor, but these are generally traditio­nal ones, as fresh and genuine stylistic devices may divert the attention of the listeners away from the main point of the speech. Besides, unex­pected and original images are more difficult to grasp and the process takes time. If a genuine metaphor is used by an orator, it is usually a sustained one, as a series of related images is easier to grasp and facilitates the conception of facts identified one with another.
Allusions in oratorical style depend on the content of the speech and the level of the audience.
Special obligatory forms open up and end an oration, e.g. My Lords; Mr. President; Mr. Chairman; Your Worship; Ladies and Gentlemen, etc. At the end of his speech the speaker usually thanks the audience for their attention by saying: Thank you or Thank you very much. Ex­pressions of direct address may be repeated in the course of the speech and can be expressed differently: dear friends, my friends, Mark youl, Mindl
Here is a sample of the speech made by a member of the House of
Commons in Parliament in April 1956 when the problem of air pollution
was discussed. It is an ordinary speech almost devoid of any signs of
elevation so typical when the orator tries to convince the audience.
"There has been a tremendous change in the Minister's attitude
since the Bill was first brought Jo the House. When we embarked
upon the Committee stage we were begging for bread and he gave
us a stone. Now, seemingly, when we are coming to the end of
, the feast he is putting many sweats in front of us. The Minister
hopes that we shall accept this proposal without too critical an
examination. While welcoming the Minister's proposals about
the Clean Air Council up to a poftit, there should be no interference
with the council's accountability to Parliament because the
chairman of the council will be the Minister.
When the hon. Member for Kidderminster (Mr. Nabarro) intro­duced a Private Bill, the Minister consulted at great length with interested bodies, and particularly with local authorities. It is within my knowledge that during those consultations sugges­tions were made to him by people who had practical experience. Those suggestions have not been accepted and woven into the Bill. I do not want the Clean Air Council to become a kind of smokescreen behind which the Minister makes a report to his own liking and which may contain views at variance with those of members of the council,
It is essential, if the council is to be effective, that it includes people who are interested and who have the knowledge and who have undertaken the scientific research involved. It must be remembered that they will have a great deal more knowledge of the subject than will the chairman of the council. They will, therefore, have a totally different point of view about what is happening in the country than will the Minister. We should provide that we have the uncompromising opinions of the members of the council, including those members appointed to it because of their know­ledge of the problems of various localities.
Another point with which I want to deal was touched upon by the hon. Member for Kidderminster. During the Committee stage we debated at great length the topic of research into noxious fumes, especially sulphuric oxides. We especially pleaded that the Clean Air Council should have co-ordinating powers so that it could co-ordinate the activities of bodies conducting research into problems of oxides and noxious fumes. Indeed, we thought that the Minister's opinion upon that subject was the same as ours. As the Bill is now drafted, certain powers are given to local authorities to contribute towards the cost of investigation and research into the pollution of the air.
We know that scientific and technical institutes and the fuel technology sections of some universities are conducting research into the problem of sulphuric pollution; yet we do not see any power given to the Clean Air Council to deal with the problem of sulphuric oxides, even though sulphuric pollution is one of the worst forms of air pollution. Will the Minister give us an as­surance that he will specially direct the attention of the Clean Air Council to its duties in co-ordinating research into the prob­lem of sulphuric oxides? Will he at the same time look again at the problem of Parliamentary accountability to make it possible for the council to give an annual report to the House, irrespec­tive of the opinions of the Minister?"
The ornamental elements in this speech are reduced to the minimum. It is a matter-of-fact speech where no high-flown words or elaborate sty­listic devices are to be found.
It will be of considerable interest to compare this speech to Byron-'s Maiden Speech in the House of Lords in defence of the Luddites, which can be regarded as a perfect specimen of oratorical style. Byron used his eloquence against the Bill providing capital punishment for the de­struction of machines. His purpose was to prevent the passage of the Bill, to get an impartial examination of the facts.
Byron's speech is rich in oratorical devices. All these devices are motivated, they are organically connected with the utterance: the form by no means dominates the content.
In contradistinction, an examination of the following speech will show that it is practically devoid 61 meaning. The speaker is merely seeking an effect.
"Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: It is indeed a great and undeserved privilege to address such an audience as I see before me. At no previous time in the history of human civilization have greater problems confronted and chal­lenged the ingenuity of man's intellect than now. Let us look around us. What do we see on the horizon? What forces are at work? Whither are we drifting? Under what mist of clouds does the future stand obscured?
My friends, casting aside the raiment of all human speech, the crucial test for the solution of all these intricate problems to which I have just alluded is the sheer and forceful application of those immutable laws which down the corridor of Time have always guided the hand of man, groping, as it were, for some faint beacon light for his hopes and aspirations. Without these great vital principles we are but puppets responding to whim and fancy, failing entirely to grasp the hidden meaning of it all. We must re-address ourselves to these questions which press for answer and solution. The issues cannot be avoided. There they stand. It is.upon you, and you, and yet even upon me, that the yoke of responsibility falls.
What, then, is our duty? Shall we continue to drift? No! With all the emphasis of my being I hurl back the message No! Drifting must stop. We must press onward and upward toward the ultimate goal to which all must aspire.
But I cannot conclude my remarks, dear friends, without touching briefly upon a subject which I know is steeped in your very consciousness. I refer to that spirit which gleams from the eyes of a new-born babe, that animates the toiling masses, that sways all the hosts of humanity past and present. Without this energizing principle all commerce, trade and industry are.hushed and will perish from .this earth as surely as the crimson sunset follows the golden sunshine. ^"
Mark you, I do not seek to unduly alarm or distress the mothers, fathers, sons and daughters gathered before me in this vast as­semblage, but I would indeed be recreant to a high resolve which I made as a youth if I did not at this time and in this place, and with the full realizing sense of responsibility which I assume, publicly declare and affirm my dedication and-my consecration to the eternal principles "and receipts of simple, ordinary, com­monplace justice." l
The proper evaluation of this speech should be: "Words, words, words." The whole speech is made to hide the fact that the speaker has no thought. Questions remain unanswered, climaxes are not motivated. What is the subject that 'cannot be left untouched'? This is really a masterpiece of eloquent emptiness and verbosity.