The bukharan emirate and turkestan under russian rule in the revolutionary era: 1917-1924

 
1.1. 
The Ancient and Early History of Bukhara and Samarkand
Bukhara and Samarkand are historically ancient Sogdian cities. The locations 
of cities of Bukhara and Samarkand were known as Sogdiana. Sogdians were ancient 
ancestors of modern Tajiks. Sogdiana was a part of Persian Empire as a satrapy, a 
province, in the administrative system of Persian Achaemenid Empire in 500 BC. 
After the conquest of Alexander the Great, the region began to be called as 
Transoxiana. Transoxiana, in Latin language, means across the Oxus River. The 
Oxus River means Amu Darya in Greek language. Romans and Greeks called 
Sogdiana as Transoxiana. Transoxiana was ruled by Seleucid Empire, Bactrians and 
Kushans after Alexander’s Helen Empire dissolved. The region of Sogdiana, in other 
name Transoxiana ruled by a federation of principalities and the capital city was 
Samarkand in the eighth century when the Arab armies destroyed Sassanid Empire. 
Transoxiana was a neighboring region to Khurasan, Khwarazm, Sinkiang and 
Tokharistan. So, these regions were in interaction with each other. Both of the local 
people in these regions, Sogdians, Khwarazmians, Tokharistanians and Persians in 
Khurasan were ethnically Iranian people. In addition, these regions were multi-
cultured and a group of religions were common among the local peoples
. 
“Several 
religions coexisted in Central Asia of that time. An amalgamation of Zoroastrianism 
(and in some cases also of Hinduism) with kindred ancient native beliefs, 
Manichaeism, Buddhism, Christianity and shamanistic cults were close neighbors 

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without the fierce competition that would soon come with Islam”.
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Zoroastrianism, 
approved as the official religion by the Sasanian dynasty, was strong in Khurasan, 
but beyond the Amu Darya was out of Sasanian influence in terms of religiosity. In 
Transoxiana, Manichaeism, another type of Persian based religion, was common 
instead of Zoroastrianism. In the following centuries, in Transoxiana and Sinkiang, 
Manichaeism spread and became the main belief.
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Sogdians in Transoxiana also 
transferred Manichaeism to Uighurs in Sinkiang. Both Bukhara and Samarkand, 
main principalities of Sogdiana, were very wealthy cities because of locating over the 
Silk Road. They can also be named as cities of merchants or commerce. After 
Sassanids were destroyed totally in 651 with the conquest of the last satrapy 
Khurasan, the Arab armies under the command of Qutayba ibn Muslim turned 
towards Sogdiana (Transoxiana). Qutayba made a series of dramatic and heroic 
campaigns over Transoxiana and Khwarazm between 705 and 715. 
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The 
transformation of Sogdian cities, Bukhara and Samarkand from their ancient culture, 
religion and tradition to Islamic ones began with Qutayba ibn Muslim and continued 
in the reigns of Umayyad and Abbasid. For example, to display the example of 
transformation and conversion, Qutayba’s policies in Samarkand after the conquest 
of the city can be informative. As Tabari narrates: 
(Qutayba) was brought the idols, which were despoiled and then placed before him; amassed, they were like an 
enormous edifice. He ordered that they be burned, and the non-Arabs said to him: “Among them are idols the burner of which 
will be destroyed!” Qutayba said: “I shall burn them with my own hand!” Ghurak came, knelt before him, and said: “Devotion 
to you is a duty incumbent upon me. Do not harm these idols!” Qutayba called for fire, took a brand in his hand, stepped 
forward, proclaimed “God is great!” set fire to them, and they burned fiercely. In the remains of the gold and silver nails that 
had been in them, they found fifty thousand mithqals.
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Tabari continues: Then Qutayba set off, returning to Merv. He deputed (his brother) Abdallah ibn Muslim over 
Samarkand, and left with him massive (numbers of) troops and much war material, saying to him: “ Do not let a (non-resident) 
polytheist (mushrik) enter any of Samarkand’s gates without having a seal on his hand. If the clay has dried before he goes out, 
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Soucek, Svat