5.3.2
The ‘public official’ requirement of torture
As already examined, the definition of torture in Art 1 of the 1984 UN Torture
Convention requires that the offence was perpetrated at the instigation, consent, or
acquiescence of a public official. If this constitutes a generally mandatory requirement
under treaty and customary law, the ambit of the offence becomes very narrow, with
the result of excluding all cases of torture committed by non-State actors, such as
guerrillas, paramilitaries and terrorists. We must distinguish between torture in the
context of international humanitarian law and torture generally.
Under international humanitarian law, in particular the 1949 Geneva Conventions
and the two 1977 Protocols, the presence, involvement or acquiescence of a State
official or any other authority-wielding person is not required for the offence to be
characterised as torture. The same is true of Arts 3 and 5 of the ICTY Statute. This
conclusion was correctly drawn by the
Kunarac
judgment, which examined in detail
all the relevant provisions of humanitarian law.
59
Moreover, Art 7(2)(e) of the
International Criminal Court (ICC) Statute, concerning torture as a crime against
humanity, does not impose the State actor requirement.
The inclusion, on the other hand, of non-State actors outside the ambit of
humanitarian law is less clear. In a recent decision, the UN CommitteeAgainst Torture
(CAT) held that a civilian pogrom against Roma settlers in Yugoslavia, which was
tolerated by the police, constituted a violation of Art 16 of the 1984 UN Torture
Convention (inhuman and cruel treatment). In a common dissenting opinion, two
Committee members expressed the view that the acts could also be described as torture
underArt 1.
60
The jurisprudence of the ECHR
61
and the UN Human Rights Committee
62
clearly articulates that Arts 3 and 7 of the European Convention on Human Rights
and of the ICCPR respectively may also apply in situations where organs or agents of
the State are not involved in the violation of the rights protected under these provisions.
Although both the European Convention on Human Rights and the ICCPR are
primarily human rights instruments and the jurisprudence of their respective
enforcement mechanisms does not directly involve reference to criminal liability, it
would be absurd to uphold one definition for human rights purposes and another
with regard to international criminal law. The only doubtful issue in this scenario is
whether the perpetration of torture by non-State agents would entail the responsibility
of the State in which the offence took place. This question has been answered in the
58
Kunarac,
Judgment (22 February 2001), paras 490–96.
59
Ibid;
the following concurred with this statement:
Krnojelac,
Judgment (15 March 2002), para 187;
Kvocka,
Judgment (2 November 2001), paras 138–39.
60
Hajrizi and Others v Yugoslavia,
Com No 161 /2000, CAT Doc CAT/C/29/D/161/2000.
61
HLR v France,
Judgment (29 April 1997) (1997) 26 EHRR 29, para 40;
Costello-Roberts v UK,
Judgment
(25 March 1993) (1993) 19 EHRR 112, paras 27–28;
A v UK,
Judgment (23 September 1998) (1998) 27
EHRR 611, para 22.
62
General Comment No 7/16 (27 July 1982), para 2.
Chapter 5: Offences Against the Person
121
affirmative by the UN Human Rights Committee, in all cases where the State does not
protect individuals from interference by private parties.
63
Finally, mention should be made to the distinction made by the
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