International Criminal Law
368
resistance. Moreover, the victim’s prior sexual life or character will not be admitted
as evidence. Nonetheless, in the ICTY Rules of Procedure (r 96) the description of
‘consent’ as a defence is used in a non-technical sense. Thus, the burden of proof is
not shifted to the accused.
199
Finally, the establishment of a Victims and Witnesses
Unit with authority to recommend protective measures and provide counselling
and support has had a significant impact in cases of rape and sexual assault.
200
13.5 THE DOCTRINE OF SUPERIOR RESPONSIBILITY
As early as the Leipzig Trials, conducted by German authorities at the end of the
First World War, military commanders have been held criminally liable for offences
committed by their subordinates where they failed to prevent or punish them,
although such action was materially feasible. This doctrine of imputed liability, born
for and applied to military personnel, was extensively utilised in the trials following
the Nuremberg Tribunal—where it did not play any part, primarily because there
was ample evidence of planning and ordering by the accused—as well as in the
Tokyo Tribunal.
201
It was first codified in Art 86(2) of the 1977 Protocol I, and then
again in Arts 7(3) and 6(3) of the ICTY and ICTR Statutes respectively.
The doctrine of superior responsibility (also known as ‘command responsibility’)
has not been invoked to any large degree by the prosecutor of the Tribunals, simply
because there has been overwhelming evidence in most cases that the accused had
taken a direct part in the offences charged. The first case to deal extensively with this
type of liability was the
Celebici
case, where three persons of varying authority over
a prisoner of war camp, the deputy warden, the warden and a civilian co-ordinator
of the camp’s affairs, were charged with a number of offences against inmates
perpetrated by camp personnel. The ICTY affirmed that the doctrine applied to all
persons, whether civilian or military, as long as a superior-subordinate relationship
was found to exist.
202
Such a relationship may be established either by law (
de jure
command) or by circumstantial evidence showing actual and effective possession
of control over others (
de facto
control), as is the case with influential or highly
regarded individuals who by virtue of such status are able to exact adherence to
their commands.
203
In the
Aleksovski
case, it was erroneously held that a camp
commander carries no liability with regard to offences perpetrated by non-camp
personnel against camp inmates, supposedly because of a lack of superior-
subordinate relationship.
204
The truth is that, like commanders of occupied territory,
the responsibility of camp commanders is not based on a superior-subordinate
199
Kunarac
judgment (22 February 2001), para 463.
200 ICTY Rules, r 34(A)(i) and (ii).
201 WH Parks, ‘Command Responsibility for War Crimes’, 62
Mil L Rev
(1973), 1; I Bantekas, ‘The Interests
of States Versus the Doctrine of Superior Responsibility’, 838
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