International Criminal Law
134
Wars.
38
The 1956 US Military Manual, in fact, not only recognises the plea of superior
orders as a valid defence;
39
it also obliges courts to take into consideration the fact
that subordinates ‘cannot be expected, in conditions of war discipline, to weigh
scrupulously the legal merits of the orders received’.
40
Similarly, the Canadian
Supreme Court in the
Finta
case recognised the defence of superior orders to war
crimes and crimes against humanity as having been incorporated in the Canadian
criminal justice system, and firmly accepted the manifest illegality rule.
41
We have already made reference to the fact that Art 33 of the ICC Statute permits,
subject to certain stringent conditions, a defence of superior orders. Because of the
divergence of doctrine—from absolute liability to manifest illegality before
international and domestic tribunals—it is worthwhile examining the process leading
to Art 33 from the purview of the participating States. During the 1996 Prep Com it
was generally felt that the absence of the defence in three seminal contemporary
instruments, that is, the ICTY and International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
Statutes, as well as the Draft Code, rendered any discussion on the matter redundant.
With the insistence of Canada and France as regards the requirement of knowledge,
supplemented with the ‘manifest illegality’ criterion, the matter gradually
resurfaced.
42
By December 1997 the inclusion of the defence had gained strong
support, but disagreement remained over the quantum of ‘knowledge’ required,
whether or not the defence should cover orders received from the Security Council.
43
There was strong support, however, in excluding the defence vis-à-vis crimes against
humanity and genocide.
44
During the Rome conference the two opposing schools of
thought clashed for the final time. The US and Canada vehemently argued that the
defence of superior orders, in those cases where the subordinate was not aware that
the order was unlawful or where the order was not manifestly unlawful, was widely
recognised in international law.
45
This proposal was particularly criticised by the
UK, New Zealand and Germany who argued that in cases where superior orders
could otherwise be invoked, an accused could raise a plea of duress and mistake of
fact or law. Although the parties came up with a compromise formula agreed by an
informal working group, which became the basis of Art 33, the German as well as
other delegations were still unsatisfied as a matter of principle. Having thereafter
the support of the US and its NATO allies, the US proposal was adopted by the
37
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