Iacobus Leodiensis [Iacobus de Montibus, Iacobus de Oudenaerde]

(a) The concert ensemble.

The principal concert soloist is the vocalist. Plucked string instruments, such as south Indian vīnā and Hindustani bīn and sitār, have also long had solo standing. Many more instruments now take solo roles in concerts, including the bowed string instruments, violin and sārangī, which were traditionally confined to melodic accompaniment. The melodic accompanist may double the soloist in compositions; in improvisation he may support the soloist by echoing his phrases while they are in progress, and he may alternate antiphonally with the soloist.

The rhythmic patterns of the drum in the ensemble are in principle independent of those in any composition or improvisation being performed by the melodic soloist. When playing simultaneously the two are bound together only in the large, that is, by the framework of the time cycle, although they almost always share the atomic pulse as well (except in the slow khayāl, where the soloist sings without pulse and the tablā drum controls the time cycle).

The Nātyaśāstra mentions three kinds of relationship between a vocal soloist and accompanying flute, strings and drums, each of which has its modern analogue. In the most basic, tattva (‘element’), the accompanist simply doubles the singer's melody or rhythm, or both (this is the only relationship suggested for the flute). In the relationship of anugata (‘accompaniment’), the general melodic or rhythmic configuration of the composition is preserved by a string accompanist or drummer but very much elaborated, and virtuoso display can be introduced when the singer sustains a long note or pauses between sections. Finally there is ogha (‘flood’ or ‘multitude’), which for a string player means antiphonal alternation and for a drummer fast and free virtuoso display.

The background drone in concert ensembles is usually provided by the plucked open wires of a Tambūrā (large long-necked lute) played by a student or sometimes by the soloist (female vocalists in particular). The adjoining side wires of some plucked string instruments can provide a harmonic background of tonic, sometimes 5th, and upper tonic as they are struck to mark divisions of a time cycle or in alternation with the playing wire. Strumming (or simultaneously bowing) open strings tuned to tonic and 5th also provides drone, as does the tuned right-hand head of a concert drum.

(b) Ceremonial ensembles.

Besides the indoor concert ensembles there are ensembles originally connected with temple or court ceremonial, in which the three basic musical functions of classical music are sometimes quite distinctly separated.

Periya melam. This Tamil term means ‘great ensemble’, and it denotes a band that usually includes two nāgasvaram, an ottu (a drone oboe), tavil and tālam. A śankh (conch), which plays the jāti (rhythmic patterns), is sometimes added to the ensemble. It is associated with temples in south India and plays the ceremonial and processional music that accompanies the image of the deity. Extensive ālāpana is played by the nāgasvaram, which may alternate between two or more players. Rhythmic solos are played between sections of the ālāpana by the tavil; during these the rhythmic cycles are marked by the tālam. For several years such ensembles (comprising a leading and secondary nāgasvaram, each accompanied by a tavil, an ottu and/or a śruti-box and tālam) have been giving recitals of Karnatak music.

Cinna melam. This ensemble (cinna is Tamil for ‘lesser’, ‘small’) accompanies recitals of bharata-nātyam dance. It is lead by the nattuvanār, who beats the tālam with a pair of nattuva tālam (cymbals) and recites the jāti for the dancers. In addition to the dancers, who wear gejjai (ankle bells), the ensemble includes a principal singer, a melodic accompaniment, a drone and a mrdangam. The melodic accompaniment was formerly provided by a mukhavīnā (small oboe) and more recently by a clarinet, and the drone by a śruti upanga (bagpipe). These instruments are now usually replaced by a transverse flute (venu or kulal), a violin and/or a vīnā and a śruti-box. The ensemble is also known as nāc.

Śahnāī ensembles. The śahnāī arrived in South Asia as part of the Muslim ceremonial naubat ensemble (see Naqqārakhāna). The ensemble's role was to play several times daily at the gates of palaces and at some shrines of Muslim pīr (holy men). The naubat is now very rare, although a few musicians are still employed at the shrine of Mu'inuddin in Ajmer, Rajasthan. Their music is now based on Hindustani rāgas.

The śahnāī also functions as a temple instrument in many places in the north, most notably in Varanasi, where it is accompanied by the drums khurdāk and duggi. It was from this background that the śahnāī moved to playing Hindustani music on the concert platform.

See also Ghata; Vamśa.

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music.

7. Aesthetics.

Artistic creativity in Indian classical music depends on a performer’s mastery of learned structures and idioms, but with each performance being in principle ephemeral and unrepeatable. Theoretical and aesthetic attention has therefore tended to give priority to underlying musical principles rather than the final product of a ‘composition’ or performance. However, the study of Indian musical aesthetics has ranged over many formal, functional and psychological aspects of the art, including both the evaluation of practice and a more philosophical interest in the basic structures. Both of these broad concerns have their precedents in śāstra (see §II, 1 above), an aim of which was the comprehensive definition and description of music, its origins and its correct procedures. In the description of instrumental and vocal procedure and of melodic shape and ‘finish’, texts such as the Sangīta-ratnākara and Sangīta-samaya-sāra (see §II, 1(ii)(a) above) and their derivatives show some influence from the language and critical discourse of real musical practice. For example, these texts’ classified lists of sthāya (the numerous different melodic inflectional patterns that are used in the passage from one note, svara, to the next) can be seen as attempts to provide effective practical markers of melodic style. The sthāya, comprehensively listed by Śārngadeva (Sangīta-raknākara, iii, 97–188), were apparently used and named by practising musicians of his time. They are precisely those intonational contours that both distinguish the peculiarly Indian approach to melodic line in general and separate the various styles one from another within the Indian field (Lath, 1987). Although many of the melodic features that they describe must have continued in practice, the theoretical category later fell out of use. Parallels for some of the sthāya may be seen in the technical language and practice of present-day musicians.

Śāstra aimed to order and schematize such material, and in so doing it was influenced by other disciplines such as phonetics, metrics, dramaturgy and poetics. Thus in the third chapter of the Sangīta-ratnākara, in outlining the technical characteristics of the song-composer (vāg-geya-kāra), the singer (gāyaka), the singer’s natural vocal ability (śārīra) and voice quality itself (śabda), a schematic system of merits (guna) and faults (dosa) is used, and these are graded in accordance with common śāstric method. In the absence of an indisputably unbroken oral tradition, it is hard to interpret many of the detailed descriptive and evaluative terms we find here, but some cultural preferences do seem to emerge. For example, equal facility in all parts of a wide vocal range, strength of tone and the ability to inspire pathos in the listener are praised, while frailty, hoarseness and inflexibility are condemned. The lists also suggest that musicians could be highly rated for a variety of reasons, and individuality does not seem to be ruled out. This kind of aesthetic evaluation was conceptually connected with the method of the alamkāra school of poetics, which concentrated on varieties of verbal expression in defining poetic style and genre. The point of departure was the Nātyaśāstra, which brought poetics and music theory close together in the single context of Sanskrit dramaturgy. Literary theory long continued to influence musical aesthetics. The influence is also to be found in the analysis of song types (prabandha) in the Brhad-deśī and its successors, where style and compositional type are classified not only according to poetic text metre and the rāga and tāla, but also in terms of regional character reminiscent of linguistic and literary idiom (Rowell, 1992, 286–7, 312–13).

As Indian classical, particularly Hindustani, music is characterized more by improvisation within strict parameters than by a repertory of ‘works’ (a Western category for which there is no real Indian equivalent), performance is seen as a representation of one or more underlying structures (rāga, tāla and compositional form), and evaluation is on the basis of how properly and effectively this is done. On the part of the enculturated listener, the musical experience centrally involves recognition and re-experience as well as the response to new material (Powers, 1976). A possible exception may be found in the kriti and other pre-determined elements of the Karnatak repertory (see §5(iv) above). However, there is an essential fluidity in the realization and rendering of these pieces, so that the performer may be regarded as having a considerable stake in the eventual structure of the musical ‘text’. Great prestige is still commonly accorded to the particularly open-ended renderings of kriti and pallavi, and a musician will be found deficient if the performance suggests excessive pre-composition (Catlin, 1985). Furthermore, a kriti will still be appraised partly on how well it represents one or more characteristics of its rāga. The same criterion is often applied by musicians to a well-formed bandiś (‘song’) in khayāl. Innovation is in principle circumscribed in such a way that the perceived integrity of the rāga, tāla and compositional form are not violated, unless for special effect. Śārngadeva briefly states how novelty is achieved and in what it consists, that is, what distinguishes one performance from another. A new song composition, he tells us, employs a new (i.e. different) rāga, tāla and verbal text; a rāga may be ‘newly’ executed with new [combinations of] sthāya, the verbal text is new by virtue of its varied subject-matter and affective power, and so on.

The classical Indian ‘musica speculativa’ was particularly concerned with the genesis and evolution of sound, both physical (e.g. the production of sound in the human body, as expounded in yogic and physiological terms by Śārngadeva at the start of the Sangīta-ratnākara) and metaphysical (the arising of audible sound from the primordial creative principle of nāda, already expounded in the first chapter of the Brhad-deśī). Musical sound is explained as an evolution, differentiation, refinement and meaningful organization of the raw sonic material. Again, the theory of language was a strong influence (Rowell, 1992, chaps. 3, 7 and 8; Sharma, 1995; Lath, 1995). In the Brhad-deśī several alternative philosophical models are offered to explain the relation of svara to śruti (see §1(ii) above), and in the standard model of many texts the rāgas are presented as generated derivatives of more basic melodic systems or structures (grāma, mūrcchanā). The ‘evolutionary’ account of rāga as derived from scale and mode may be seen as a forerunner of the classificatory and pedagogical orderings of more recent systems.

Conceptually, rāga (see §2(i) above) has maintained a considerable continuity from early texts to the present day: both the distinctness of the different rāgas and the individuality of ethos of each of them have always been stressed; each performance ‘reveals’ and enhances for the listener an already known (i.e. learned) structural and aesthetic entity that persists, as an abstract, behind all its exemplars and can only be represented through them. In the rāga-mālā systems of painting, which flourished in the north and central Indian courts especially from the 16th to the early 19th centuries (see §II, 3(iii) above), and in the poetic evocations (dhyāna-śloka) often accompanying them, the notion of individuality and distinctness of the rāgas was given a visual and emotive analogue. However, writers on music stress the aesthetic autonomy of music itself; the ethos of the rāga, to be understood, has to be experienced in sound rather than simply described. Nānyadeva’s, Śārngadeva’s and Somanātha’s notated musical examples in their treatises are included in order to impart this understanding.

The affective character of melody was expounded first in relation to its use in the dramatic context. In the Brhad-deśī the many rāgas are distinguished from one another not only by their individual tonal features but by their conventional association with particular scenes or situations or character types in Sanskrit drama; thus they are characterized by their aesthetic function in supporting particular atmospheres and moods. Here may be at least one of the origins of the conventional linking of rāgas in Hindustani music with times of day and seasons of the year, a notion of appropriate time evoked or enhanced by the melodic ethos. In these associations it is also possible that ideas of appropriateness and auspiciousness were inherited from traditions of religious music, in which ritual exactness of performance was crucially important.

In the Brhad-deśī the important connection was also made between rāga and rasa, the central and most potent idea in traditional Indian aesthetics. Rasa is aesthetic ‘flavour’ or ‘relish’, produced out of the various kinds of represented emotion (bhāva) that are found in the situations and events depicted on stage. Originally occurring in the Nātyaśāstra as a theory of aesthetic response to drama, the rasa principle was extended to non-dramatic literature and eventually came to be regarded as relevant to aesthetic experience in general. The theory of rasa was discussed and variously elaborated by successive writers on poetics, but essentially it held that there is a limited number of specific rasa corresponding to a similarly fixed series of ‘basic’ or ‘permanent’ emotions. Rasa can be aroused, in a sensitive spectator or connoisseur (rasika or sahrdaya), through his ‘tasting’ the emotion represented in the work of art. Much discussion has been devoted to the rasa theory and its applicability to music (as opposed to the verbal and representational arts alone), and conclusions have ranged from total rejection to enthusiastic adaptations of the idea. As a general theory of aesthetics it does suggest a particular model of interaction between the creative act and the ‘receiver’ of art who recognizes and responds to the structural entities underlying a performance or artefact. It must, however, be admitted that in the case of rāga, in addition to the stable notion of the identity of particular melodic substructures, there will be a range of moods, evoking many levels of response, in the course of any actual performance.

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

reference sources

general texts

treatises and commentaries

other historical sources

early history

general and later histories

indian music and the west

hindustani music

karnatak music

instruments

aesthetics

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

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treatises and commentaries

Dattila: Dattilam; ed. E. te Nijenhuis with Eng. trans. as Dattilam: a Compendium of Ancient Indian Music (Leiden, 1970); ed. M. Lath with Eng. trans. as A Study of Dattilam: a Treatise on the Sacred Music of Ancient India (New Delhi, 1978, 2/1988 as Dattilam: English and Sanskrit)

Narada: Nāradīya śiksā; ed. S. Śukla (Datia, 1964) [incl. commentary by Bhattaśobhākara]; trans. L. Rowell as ‘A Śiksā for the Twiceborn’, AsM, ix/1 (1977), 72–94 [incl. commentary]

Bharata: Nātyaśāstra (4th–5th centuries); ed. M. Ramakrishna Kavi and J.S. Pade (Baroda, 1926–64), i (2/1956); ed. M. Ghosh with Eng. trans. (Calcutta, 1951–67, rev. 2/1961–7)

Matanga: Brhad-deśī (8th–9th centuries); ed. K.S. Śāstrī (Trivandrum, 1928); ed. P.L. Sharma and A.B. Beohar with Eng. trans. as Brhaddeśī of Śrī Matanga Muni (Delhi, 1992)

Abhinavagupta: Abhinava-bhāratī (10th century); in Nātyaśāstra, ed. M. Ramakrsna Kavi and J.S. Pade (Baroda, 1926–64)

Nārada: Sangīta-makaranda (10th–12th centuries); ed. M.R. Telang (Baroda, 1920); ed. L. Garga (Hathras, 1978)

Nānyadeva: Bharata-bhāsyam (c1100); ed. C.P. Desai (Khairagarh, 1961–)

Someśvara: Mānasollāsa (1131); ed. G.K. Shrigondekar (Baroda, 1925–61)

Pārśvadeva: Sangīta-samaya-sāra (c 13th century); ed. T. Ganapati Śāstrī (Trivandrum, 1925); ed. K.C.D. Brhaspati (Delhi, 1977)

Śārngadeva: Sangīta-ratnākara (13th century); ed. S. Subrahmanya Sastri (Madras, 1943–53; Eng. trans., C. Kunhan Raja, 1945; K. Kunjunni Raja and R. Burnier, 1976); ed. R.K. Shringy and P.L. Sharma with Eng. trans. (Delhi, 1978–)

Simhabhūpāla: Sudhākara (c1330); in Sangīta-ratnākara, i, ed. S. Subrahmanya Sastri (Madras, 1943–53)

Sudhākalaśa: Sangītopanisat-sāroddhāra (1350); ed. U.P. Shah (Baroda, 1961)

Ghunyat-ul-munya (1374–5); ed. S. Sarmadee as Ghunyat-ul-Munya: the Earliest Known Persian Work on Indian Music (Bombay, 1978)

Sangīta-śiromani (1428); ed. E. te Nijenhuis with Eng. trans. as Sangītaśiromani: a Medieval Handbook of Indian Music (Leiden, 1992)

Kallinātha: Kalānidhi (c1450); in Sangīta-ratnākara, i, ed. S. Subrahmanya Sastri (Madras, 1943–53)

Kumbhakarna: Sangīta-rāja (1453); ed. P.L. Sharma (Varanasi, 1963)

Lahjat-i-sikander-shāhi (c1500)

Śubhankara: Sangīta-dāmodara (c1500); ed. G. Sastri and G. Mukhopadhyaya (Calcutta, 1960)

Rāmāmātya: Svara-mela-kalānidhi (c1550); ed. M.S. Ramaswami Aiyar (Tiruvannamalai, 1932); ed. V. Bhatta and B. Sharma with Hindi trans. (Hathras, 1963)

Śrīkantha: Rasa-kaumudī (c1575); ed. A.N. Jani (Baroda, 1963)

Pundarīka Vitthala: Rāga-mālā (1576); ed. N.G. Ratanjankar and G.G. Barve (Bombay, 1914); ed. R. Sathyanarayana with Kannada trans. in Pundarīkamālā (Bangalore, 1986), 115–202

Pundarīka Vitthala: Sadrāgacandrodaya (late 16th century); ed. G.V. Sharma (Bombay, 1912); ed. R. Sathyanarayana with Kannada trans. in Pundarīkamālā (Bangalore, 1986), 1–112

Pundarīka Vitthala: Rāgamañjarī (late 16th century); ed. B.S. Sukthankar (Pune, 1918); ed. R. Sathyanarayana with Kannada trans. in Pundarīkamālā (Bangalore, 1986), 205–65

Pundarīka Vitthala: Nartananirnaya (late 16th century); ed. R. Sathyanarayana with Kannada trans. in Pundarīkamālā (Bangalore, 1986), 269–668

Abul Fazl: Ā’īn-i akbarī (1597); Eng. trans. H. Blochmann and H.S. Jarrett (Calcutta, 1873, rev. 2/1927–49/R)

Somanātha: Rāga-vibodha (1609); ed. S. Subrahmanya Sastri (Madras, 1940)

Govinda Dīksitar: Sangīta-sudhā (c 1620); ed. P.S. Sundaram Aiyar and S. Subrahmanya Sastri (Madras, 1940) [first pubd 1930–39 in Journal of the Music Society, Madras]

Dāmodara Pandita: Sangīta-darpana (c 1625); ed. A. Bake with Eng. trans. (Paris, 1930); ed. K. Vasudeva Sastri (Thanjavur, 1952)

Venkatamkhin: Caturdandī-prakāśikā (c 1640); ed. S. Subrahmanya Sastri, T.V. Subba Rao and T.L. Venkatarama Ayyar (Madras, 1934)

Mīrzā Khān: Tuhfat al-Hind (17th century); ed. N.H. Ansari, i (Tehran, 1968); ii (Delhi, 1983)

Purusottama Miśra: Sangītanārāyana (17th century); ed. J.B. Katz as The Musicological Portions of the Sangītanārāyana: a Critical Edition and Commentary (diss., U. of Oxford, 1987)

Ahobala-pandita: Sangīta-pārijāta (17th century); ed. J.V. Bhattācārya (Calcutta, 1884); ed. Kalinda, i–ii (Hathras, 2/1956); iii (Hathras, 1971)

Śrīnivāsa: Rāga–tattva-vibodha (17th century); ed. V.S. Desai (Baroda, 1956)

K. Vasudeva Sastri, ed.: Rāga ālāpanās and thāyams in Devanagari and Tamil Scripts (Thanjavur, 1958) [MSS of Rājā Śahājī, late 17th century]

Locana Kavi: Rāgataranginī (late 17th century); ed. D.K. Joshi (Pune, 1918)

Tulajā Rājā: Sangīta-sārāmrta (c 1730); ed. S. Subrahmanya Sastri (Madras, 1942)

Pratāp Singh: Sangīt-sār (c 1800); ed. Pune Gāyan Samāj (Pune, 1910–12)

Muhammad Reza: Nāghmāt-i āsafi (Patna, 1813)

Svātitirunāl: Muhanāprāsāntyaprāsavyavasthā (1813–46); Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, lvi (1985), 176–91

Muhammad Karam Imam: Ma’danu’l-mūsīqī (1857); trans. G. Vidyarthi, Bulletin [Sangeet Natak Akademi], nos.11–12 (1959), 13, 33; nos.13–14 (1959), 6; nos.15–16 (1960), 49

Subbarāma Dīksitar: Sangīta-sampradāya-pradarśinī (Ettaiyapuram, 1904; Tamil trans., 1961–8)

Subbarāma Dīksitar: Bālaśiksā sampradāya … (Ettaiyapuram, 1905) [primer for Sangīta-sampradāya-pradarśinī]

V.N. Bhatkhande: Hindustānī-sangīta-paddhati (Bombay, 1910–32; Hindi trans., 1951–7)

O. Thākur: Sangītāñjalī, i (Lahore, 1938, 2/1959); ii (Hathras, 1954); iii–vi (Varanasi, 1955–62); vii–viii (MSS)

A. Daniélou and N.R. Bhatt, eds. and trans.: Textes des Purāna sur la théorie musicale (Pondicherry, 1959)

P.L. Sharma: ‘Brhaddeśī of Matanga’, Indian Music Journal, nos.11–12 (1970), 54–8; nos.13–14 (1971), 56–68

G.H. Tarlekar: Studies in the Nātyaśāstra (Delhi, 1975, 2/1991)

P.L. Sharma: ‘Nānyadeva’s Bharata Bhāshya’, Indian Music Journal, no.11 (1975–80), 65–73

A. Mette: ‘Ein Musiktheoretischer Traktat im Jainakanon’, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens, xxiv (1980), 83–97

S. Ramanathan: ‘The Sangita Sara of Sri Vidyaranya’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, li (1980), 57–77

S. Sita: ‘The Raga Lakshana Manuscript of Sahaji Maharaja of Tanjavur’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, liv (1983), 140–81

G.H. Tarlekar: ‘The Śārīralaksana in the Sangītaratnākara’, Gems of Indian Music and Musicology, ed. S. Kulshreshtha and others (Delhi, 1994), 94–6

M. Lath: ‘The Body as an Instrument: a Theoretical Choice Made by Śārngadeva’, Prakrti: the Integral Vision, iii: The Āgamic Tradition and the Arts, ed. B. Bäumer (New Delhi, 1995), 101–13

P. Vonessen: Aumāpatam: Kritische Edition, Übersetzung und Kommentar eines Sanskrit-Textes über Musik und Tanz (Frankfurt, 1996)

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

other historical sources

Cilappatikāram (c500ce); ed. P.V. Cōmacuntaranār (Madras, 1969)

Nāyak Bakhśū: Sahas-ras (17th century)

B. Dargah Quli Khān: Muraqqa’-i Delhī (1738); Eng. trans. C.S. and S.M. Chenoy as Muraqqa’-i Delhī: the Mughal Capital in Muhammad Shah’s Time (Delhi, 1989)

Singarācāryulu: Gāyaka locana (19th century)

Mirza Mohammad Ruswa [Hadi]: Umrāōjān ādā (n.p., 1899); Eng. trans. K. Singh and M.A. Husaini (Calcutta, 1961/R)

Nazir Ahmad: ‘The Lahjat i Sikander Shabi’, Islamic Culture, xxviii (1954), 410–17

J.C. Jain: The Vasudevahindī: an Authentic Jain Version of the Brhatkathā (Ahmedabad, 1977)

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

early history

P.R. Bhandarkar: ‘Contribution to the Study of Ancient Hindu Music’, Indian Antiquary, xli (1912), 157–64, 185–95, 254–65

A.A. Bake: Bydrage tot de kennis der voor-Indische muziek (Paris, 1930)

V. Raghavan: ‘Music in Ancient Indian Drama’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxv (1954), 79–92 [repr. from Art and Letters: Journal of the Royal India, Pakistan and Ceylon Society, xxviii/1 (1953), 10–18]

V. Raghavan: ‘Some Names in Early Sangita Literature’, Bulletin [Sangeet Natak Akademi], no.5 (1956), 19–28; no.6 (1957), 23–30 [rev. from Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, iii (1932), 11–32, 94–102]

S. Ramanathan: Music in Cilappatikaram (Madurai, 1979)

N. Ramanathan: ‘Gāndharva Forms’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, ix/1 (1980), 19–28

L. Rowell: ‘Early Indian Musical Speculation and the Theory of Melody’, JMT, xxv (1981), 217–44

D.R. Widdess: ‘Tāla and Melody in Early Indian Music: a Study of Nānyadeva’s Pānikā Songs with Musical Notation’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, xliv (1981), 481–508

M. Lath: ‘Ancient Indian Music and the Concept of Man’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, xii/2–3 (1983), 1–8

B. Varadarajan: ‘Ancient Music: the Music of the Sama Veda and the Songs of the Saivite and Vaishnavite Saints’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, lxi (1990), 164–88

L. Rowell: Music and Musical Thought in Early India (Chicago, 1992)

T. Seetharama Lakshmi: References to Music in Non-Sangīta Literature (Bangalore, 1993)

D.R. Widdess: The Rāgas of Early Indian Music: Modes, Melodies and Musical Notations from the Gupta Period to c1250 (Oxford, 1995)

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

general and later histories

V.N. Bhatkhande: A Comparative Study of Some of the Leading Music Systems of the 15th, 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries (n.p., n.d.) [written 1930]

V.N. Bhatkhande: A Short Historical Survey of the Music of Upper India (Bombay, 1934/R) [a speech given at the All-India Music Conference I: Baroda 1916]

O. Gosvami: The Story of Indian Music (Bombay, 1957, 2/1961)

Swami Prajnanananda: The Historical Development of Indian Music (Calcutta, 1960, 2/1973)

K.S. Lal: Twilight of the Sultanate (Bombay, 1963)

Swami Prajnanananda: A History of Indian Music, i (Calcutta, 1963)

Swami Prajnanananda: A Historical Study of Indian Classical Music (Calcutta, 1965, 2/1981)

A. Ahmad: An Intellectual History of Islam in India (Edinburgh, 1969)

E. te Nijenhuis: Indian Music: History and Structure (Leiden, 1974)

V. Premalatha: Music through the Ages (Delhi, 1983)

C. Capwell: ‘Musical Life in Nineteenth-Century Calcutta as a Component in the History of a Secondary Urban Centre’, AsM, xviii/1 (1986), 139–63

R. Flora: ‘Miniature Paintings: Important Sources for Music History’, AsM, xvii/2 (1987), 196–240 [repr. from Wade, 1983]

B.C. Wade: ‘Mughal Illustrated Manuscripts: Sources for the Documentation of Indian Music History’, Tradition and its Future in Music, ed. Y. Tokumaro and others (Osaka, 1990), 35–41

S.P. Blake: Shahjahanabad: the Sovereign City in Mughal India, 1639–1739 (Cambridge, 1991)

C. Capwell: ‘The Interpretation of History and the Foundations of Authority in the Visnupur Gharānā of Bengal’, Ethnomusicology and Modern Music History, ed. S. Blum, P. Bohlman and D. Neuman (Urbana, IL, 1993), 95–102

M. Trivedi: ‘An Appraisal of the Musical Arts at Shahjahanabad during the First Half of the Eighteenth Century’, Art and Culture: Felicitation Volume in Honour of … S. Nurual Hasan, ed. A.J. Qaisar and S.P. Verma (Jaipur, 1993), 95–103

C. Chatterjee: Śāstrīya Sangīta and Music Culture of Bengal through the Ages (Delhi, 1996)

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

indian music and the west

J. Kuckertz: ‘Die klassische Musik Indiens und ihre Aufnahme in Europa im 20. Jahrhundert’, AMw, xxxi (1974), 170–84; Eng. trans. (1983)

G.J. Farrell: ‘Sir William Jones and C.R. Day: Two Early Researchers into the Music of India’, Bulletin of the International Council for Traditional Music, UK Chapter (1986), spr., 13–30

R. Head: ‘Corelli in Calcutta: Colonial Music Making in India during the 17th and 18th Centuries’, EMc, xviii (1986), 548–53

R. Head: ‘Holst and India’, Tempo, no.58 (1986), 2–7

P.V. Bohlman: ‘The European Discovery of Music in the Islamic World and the “Non-Western” in the 19th Century History of Music’, JM, v (1987), 147–63

J. Bor: ‘The Rise of Ethnomusicology: Sources on Indian Music c 1780–1890’, YTM, xx (1988), 51–73

R.L. Hardgrave and S.M. Slawek: ‘Instruments and Music Culture in Eighteenth Century India: the Solvyns Portraits’, AsM, xx/1 (1988–9), 1–92

A.D. Ranade: Indology and Ethnomusicology: Contours of the Indo-British Relationship (New Delhi, 1992)

I. Woodfield: ‘Collecting Indian Songs in Late 18th Century Lucknow: Problems of Transcription’, British Journal of Ethnomusicology, iii (1994), 73–88

I. Woodfield: ‘The “Hindostannie Air”: English Attempts to Understand Indian Music in the Late Eighteenth Century’, JRMA, cix (1994), 189–211

G.J. Farrell: Indian Music and the West (Oxford, 1997)

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

hindustani music

V.N. Bhatkhande: Kramik pustak-mālikā [Progressive book-series] (Bombay, 1913–37; Hindi trans., 1955)

S.N. Karnad: ‘Todi Varieties’; ‘Bilawal Varieties’, All-India Music Conference IV: Lucknow 1925, 159

S.N. Ratanjankar: ‘Kanada Varieties’, All-India Music Conference IV: Lucknow 1925, 172

O.C. Gangoly: Rāgas and Rāginīs (Bombay, 1935/R)

V. Nārāyan Patvardhan: Rāg-vijñān [Rāga knowledge] (Pune, 1936–64); i (8/1972); ii (7/1961); iii (7/1967); iv (5/1968); v (4/1962); vi (2/1964) [7 vols.]

G.H. Ranade: Hindusthani Music: an Outline of its Physics and Aesthetics (Sangli, 1938)

A. Daniélou: North Indian Music (London, 1949–54, 2/1968 as The Rāgas of Northern Indian Music)

S.N. Ratanjankar: ‘Ragas in Hindustani Music’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxii (1951), 97–105

Vilāyat Husain Khān: Sangīt-jñõ samsmaran [Recollections of a music connoisseur] (New Delhi, 1959)

S.N. Ratanjankar: ‘Gamakas in Hindustani Music’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxxi (1960), 94–107

V.H. Deshpande: Gharāndāj gāyakī (Bombay, 1961); Eng. trans. as Indian Musical Traditions: an Aesthetic Study of the Gharanas in Hindustani Music (Bombay, 1973)

C.S. Pant: ‘Khyal Compositions from the Point of View of Poetry’, Commemoration Volume in Honour of Dr S.N. Ratanjankar, ed. K.G. Ginde and others (Bombay, 1961), 136–42

Thakur Jaidev Singh: ‘The Evolution of Khyala’, Commemoration Volume in Honour of Dr S.N. Ratanjankar, ed. K.G. Ginde and others (Bombay, 1961), 127–32

N.A. Jairazbhoy and W.A. Stone: ‘Intonation in Present-Day North Indian Classical Music’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, xxvi (1963), 119–32

Amir Khan: ‘The Tarana Style of Singing’, Music East and West: New Delhi 1964, 22–3

C.S. Pant: ‘Lochana’s Ragatarangini’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxxvi (1965), 67–75

P.L. Sharma: ‘The Concept of Sthaya in Indian Sangitasastra’, Indian Music Journal, no.3 (1965), 29–35

P.L. Sharma: ‘A Glossary of Sthayas’, Indian Music Journal, no.4 (1965), 33–41; no.5 (1966), 29–38

V.R. Athavale: Pandit Vishnu Digambar (New Delhi, 1967)

P.K. Dīksit: Nāyak-nāyikā bhed aur rāga-rāginī vargīkaran [The Nāyak-Nāyika distinction and the rāga-rāginī classification] (Varanasi, 1967)

S.N. Ratanjankar: Pandit Bhatkhande (New Delhi, 1967)

D. Śrīvāstav: Prācīn bharat-mẽ smgīt [Music in north India] (Varanasi, 1967)

W. Kaufmann: The Ragas of North India (Bloomington, IN, 1968)

R.C. Mehta: Āgrā gharānā: paramparā, gāyakī aur cīzẽ [The Agra gharānā: lineage, style and compositions] (Baroda, 1969)

V.H. Deshpande: ‘The Aesthetic Laws of Khyal’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xlii (1971), 122–31

N.A. Jairazbhoy: The Rāgs of North Indian Music: their Structure and Evolution (London, 1971)

N.A. Jairazbhoy: ‘Factors Underlying Important Notes in North Indian Music’, EthM, xvi (1972), 63–81

P.L. Sharma, ed.: Sahasrasa: Nāyak Bakhśū ke dhrupadom kā sangrah (New Delhi, 1972) [Eng. trans. as ‘Sahasarasa: a Compilation of Dhrupad Texts Ascribed to Bakshoo: Synopsis of a Treatise’, Indian Music Journal, nos.15–20 (1972–4), 41–8]

L.K. Malhotra: ‘My Father, my Guru’, Sangeet Natak, no.29 (1973), 17–34

B.K. Roy Choudhury: ‘The Senia Gharana of Rampur’, Sangeet Natak, no.29 (1973), 5–8

R. Shankar: ‘Ustad Allaudin Khan’, Sangeet Natak, no.29 (1973), 9–16

B.C. Wade: ‘Chīz in Khyāl: the Traditional Composition in the Improvised Performance’, EthM, xvii (1973), 443–59

J. Bor: ‘Raga, Species and Evolution’, Sangeet Natak, no.35 (1975), 17–48

K.C.D. Brhaspati: Dhruvapada aur uskā vikās [Dhrupad and its evolution] (Patna, 1976)

C. Karnani: Listening to Hindustani Music (Bombay, 1976)

H.S. Powers: ‘The Structure of Musical Meaning: a View from Banaras’, PNM, xiv/2–xv/1 (1976), 308–34

B. Silver: ‘On Becoming an Ustād: Six Lives in the Evolution of a Gharānā’, AsM, vii/2 (1976), 27–58

R. Sonnenschmidt: Bhairavī-rāginī: Studien zu einen Nort-Indischen Melodietyp, NGOMA, iv (Munich, 1976)

B.N. Goswamy: ‘Those Moon Faced Singers: Music and Dance at the Royal Courts in the Panjab’, National Centre of the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, vii/1 (1978), 1–10

V.H. Deshpande: Ālāpinī (Bombay, 1979); Eng. trans. as Between Two Tampuras (Bombay, 1989)

Amjad Ali Khan: My Guru, my father (New Delhi, 1979)

S.K. Saxena: The Winged Form: Aesthetical Essays on Hindustani Rhythm (New Delhi, 1979)

M.V. Dhond: The Evolution of Khyāl (New Delhi, 1980)

E. Keesing: Hazrat Inayat Khan: a Biography (The Hague, 1980)

D.M. Neuman: The Life of Music in North India: the Organization of an Artistic Tradition (Detroit, 1980/R)

N. Sorrell and R. Narayan: Indian Music in Performance: a Practical Introduction (Manchester, 1980) [incl. cassette]

W. Van der Meer: Hindusthani Music in the Twentieth Century (The Hague, 1980)

S.K. Saxena: Aesthetical Essays: Studies in Aesthetic Theory, Hindustani Music and Kathak Dance (Delhi, 1981)

M. Nadkarni: At the Centre: Fifteen Musicians of Madhya Pradesh (Bhopal, 1982)

D. Ghosh, ed.: The Great Shankars: Uday, Ravi (Calcutta, 1983)

W. Van Beek: Hazrat Inayat Khan (New York, 1983)

N.P. Ahmad: Hindustani Music: a Study of its Development in the 17th and 18th Centuries (New Delhi, 1984)

G.N. Joshi: Down Melody Lane (Bombay, 1984)

A.D. Ranade: On Music and Musicians of Hindoostan (New Delhi, 1984)

B.C. Wade: Khyāl: Creativity within North India’s Classical Music Tradition (Cambridge, 1984)

J.L. Erdman: Patrons and Performers in Rajasthan: the Subtle Tradition (Delhi, 1985)

S. Misra: Music Makers of the Bhatkhande College of Hindustani Music (Calcutta, 1985)

F. Delvoye: ‘Bibliography on Dhrupad’, Dhrupad Annual (1986), 95–115; (1987), 119–21; (1988), 98–102; (1989), 105–7; (1990), 117–20; (1991), 30–33; (1992), 112–15; (1993), 86–90; (1994), 56–60; (1995), 125–8

M.R. Gautam: ‘The Concept of Rāga in Hindustani Music’, Aspects of Indian Music, ed. S. Mutatkar (New Delhi, 1987), 13–18

M. Lath: ‘Dhrupad kā itihās: ek naī drsti kā āgraha’ [The history of dhrupad: a plea for a new approach], Dhrupad Annual, ix (1987), 28–32 [incl. Eng. summary]

N. Owens: ‘The Dagar Gharānā: a Case Study of Performing Artists’, AsM, xviii/2 (1987), 158–95 [repr. from Wade, 1983]

M. Lath: ‘What is Khyal?’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, xvii/1 (1988), 1–11

Z. Yusuf, ed.: Rhythms of the Lower Indus: Perspectives on the Music of Sindh (Karachi, c 1988)

P. Manuel: Thumrī in Historical Perspective (Delhi, 1989)

S. Nayar: Bhatkhande’s Contribution to Music: a Historical Perspective (Bombay, 1989)

A.D. Ranade: Keywords and Concepts: Hindustani Classical Music (New Delhi, 1990)

S. Misra: Musical Heritage of Lucknow (New Delhi, 1991)

P. Moutal: A Comparative Study of Selected Hindustānī Rāgas Based on Contemporary Practice (New Delhi, 1991)

P. Moutal: Hindustānī Rāgas Index: Bibliographical References on Descriptions, Compositions and Vistāras of Hindustānī Rāgas Based on Selected Major Contemporary Works in Devanāgarī (New Delhi, 1991)

H. Powers: ‘Reinterpretations of Tradition in Hindustani Music: Omkarnath Thakur contra Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande’, The Traditional Indian Theory and Practice of Music and Dance, ed. J.B. Katz (Leiden, 1992), 9–51

D. Chaudhuri, ed.: Indian Music and Mushtaq Ali Khan (New Delhi, 1993)

B.R. Deodar: Pillars of Hindusthani Music (Bombay, 1993) [Eng. trans. from Marathi]

T.W. Ross: ‘Forgotten Patterns: Mīrkhand and Amir Khan’, AsM, xxiv/2 (1993), 89–110

S. Slawek: ‘Ravi Shankar as a Mediator between a Traditional Music and Modernity’, Ethnomusicology and Modern Music History, ed. S. Blum, P. Bohlman and D. Neuman (Urbana, IL, 1993), 161–80

F. Delvoye: ‘The Thematic Range of Dhrupad Songs Attributed to Tānsen, Foremost Court-Musician of the Mughal Emperor Akbar’, Studies in South Asian Devotional Literature, ed. A.W. Entwhistle and F. Mallison (New Delhi, 1994), 406–29

D.R. Widdess: ‘Festivals of Dhrupad in Northern India: New Contexts for an Ancient Art’, British Journal of Ethnomusicology, iii (1994), 89–109

N.A. Jairazbhoy: The Rāgs of North Indian Music (Bombay, 2/1995)

F. Delvoye: ‘La transmission des répertoires dans la musique vocale hindustānī: l’example des chants dhrupad attribués à Tānsen, premier musicien de la cour d’Akbar’, Purusārtha, xviii (1996), 69–84

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

karnatak music

C.R. Day: The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan (London, 1891/R)

P. Sambamoorthy: South Indian Music Series (Madras, 1927–, rev. and enlarged 7/1966–9, 11/1983)

N.S. Ramachandran: The Rāgas of Karnatic Music (Madras, 1938)

V. Raghavan: ‘Some Musicians and their Patrons about 1800 ad in Madras City’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xvi (1945), 127–36

R. Rangarāmānuja: Kriti mani mālai [Necklace of kritis]) (Madras, 1947–53, 2/1965–7)

S. Vidya: Kritis of Syama Sastri (Madras, 1947–8)

K. Ramachandran: Daksinarāga-ratnākaram [Ocean of southern rāgas] (Madras, 1949)

V. Appa Rao: ‘Kshetrajna’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxi (1950), 110–29

K.V. Ramachandran: ‘Carnatic Ragas from a New Angle’, ‘Carnatic Ragas and the Textual Tradition’, ‘Apurva Ragas of Tyagaraja’s Songs’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxi (1950), 88–109

V. Appa Rao: ‘The Vizianagaram Music Manuscripts’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxiii (1952), 153–65; xxiv (1953), 125–34

Summary of the Raga Lakshana, ed. the Music Academy (Madras, 1952)

P. Sambamoorthy: A Dictionary of South Indian Music and Musicians (Madras, 1952–71, 2/1984)

C.S. Ayyar: 108 Kritis of Sri Tyagaraja: Text and Notation (Madras, 1955)

V. Raghavan: ‘Sri Muttuswami Dikshitar’, ‘Why is the Mridanga so called?’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxvi (1955), 131–47, 148ff

A. Sunderam Ayyar, ed.: Śrī Dīksita-kīrtana-mālā [Garland of Diksita kīrtanas] (Madras, 1955–79) [15 vols.]

H.S. Powers: The Background of the South Indian Rāga System (diss., Princeton U., 1959)

P. Sambamoorthy: Great Musicians (Madras, 1959, 2/1985)

P. Sambamoorthy: Great Composers, i (Madras, 2/1962); Tyagaraja (Madras, 1954, 2/1970)

V. Raghavan: Bhoja’s Śrngāra-prakāśa (Madras, 1963)

P. Sambamoorthy: Tyagaraja (New Delhi, 1967)

N. Chennakesaviah: ‘The Spread and Development of Tyagaraja Kirtanas in Mysore’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxxix (1968), 73–7

K.C.D. Brhaspati: ‘Muslim Influence on Venkatamakhi and his School’, Sangeet Natak, no.13 (1969), 5–26

J. Kuckertz: Form und Melodiebildung der karnatischen Musik Südindiens (Wiesbaden, 1970)

T.S. Ramakrishnan: ‘Sri Subbarama Dikshitar and his Contributions’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xli (1970), 194–207

N.S. Ramachandran: ‘The Concept of Alapa according to Lakshana Granthas; with Reference to Karnataka Music’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xlii (1971), 98–112

R.R. Ayyangar: History of South Indian (Carnatic) Music (Madras, 1972)

J. Kuckertz: ‘Die Kunstmusik Südindiens im 19. Jahrhundert’, Musikkulturen Asiens, Afrikas und Ozeaniens, ed. R. Günther (Regensburg, 1973), 97–132

V. Raghavan, ed.: Muttuswami Dikshitar (Bombay, 1975) [incl. index of works]

S. Sita: ‘Contribution of Sahaji Maharaja of Tanjore to Music and Dance’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xlvi (1975), 68–95

S. Venkitsubramonia Iyer: Swati Tirunal and his Music (Trivandrum, 1975)

J. Higgins: ‘From Prince to Populace: Patronage as a Determinant of Change in South Indian (Karnatak) Music’, AsM, vii/2 (1976), 20–26

W. Kaufmann: The Rāgas of South India: a Catalogue of Scalar Material (Bloomington, IN, 1976)

S. Sita: ‘Muttuswamy Dikshitar and Venkatamakhi’s Tradition’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xlvii (1976), 116–50

S. Bhide: ‘King Shahaji’s “Prabandha”’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, vi/2 (1977), 28–41

S. Sita: ‘Music and Dance during the Time of Vijayaraghava Nayak of Tanjore’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xlviii (1977), 139–50

T. Vishwanathan: ‘The Analysis of Rāga Ālāpana in South Indian Music’, AsM, ix/1 (1977), 13–71

V. Raghavan: ‘Shri Shyama Shastri’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, vii/1 (1978), 8–15

S. Srinivasa Rao: ‘A Comparative Study of Muttuswami Dikshitar and Other Composers, Purandaradasa and Kshetrajna’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xlix (1978), 126–44

S. Venkitasubramonia Iyer: ‘The Stava Varnas of Swati Tirunal’, Sangeet Natak, no.58 (1980), 39–46

G. Kuppuswamy and H. Hariharan: Index of Songs in South Indian Music (Delhi, 1981)

S. Seetha: Tanjore as a Seat of Music during the 17th, 18th and 19th Centuries (Madras, 1981)

S.R. Janakiraman: ‘An Analytical Study of Tyagaraja’s Compositions’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, liii (1982), 126–35

B. Nettl: ‘A Tale of Two Cities: Musical Culture in Modern Tehran and Madras’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, liii (1982), 105–10

B. Rajanikanta Rao: ‘Kshetrayya and his Padams’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, liii (1982), 111–25

S. Venkitasubramonia Iyer: ‘Irayimman Tampi’s Contribution to Music and Dance’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, liv (1983), 83–96

H.S. Powers: ‘Musical Art and Esoteric Theism: Muttusvāmi Dīksitar’s Ānandabhairavī Kīrtanams on Śiva and Śakti at Tiruvārūr’, Discourses on Śiva, ed. M.W. Meister (Philadelphia, 1984), 317–40

A. Catlin: ‘Pallavi and Kriti of Karnatak Music: Evolutionary Processes and Survival Strategies’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, xiv/1 (1985), 26–44

Gottu Vadya Sakharam Rao: ‘Maharashtrian Musicians of Karnatic Music’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, lviii (1987), 110–16

E. te Nijenhuis and S. Gupta: Sacred Songs of India: Dīksitar’s Cycle of Hymns to the Goddess Kamalā (Winterthur, 1987)

S. Ramanathan: ‘The Concept of the Rāga in Carnatic Music’, Aspects of Indian Music, ed. S. Mutatkar (New Delhi, 1987), 9–12

R. Sathyanarayana: ‘Karnātaka Music: a Synoptic Survey’, Aspects of Indian Music, ed. S. Mutatkar (New Delhi, 1987), 29–75

R.L. Simon: ‘Tyagaraja and the South Indian Bhajana Sampradaya’, AsM, xx/1 (1988–9), 114–27

G. Kuppuswamy and H. Hariharan, eds.: Musical Works of Mahārāja Swāti Tirunāl (Delhi, 1990)

T.S. Parthasarathy: ‘The Pancha Ratna Kritis of Sri Tyagaraja’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, lxi (1990), 146–59

W.J. Jackson: Tyāgarāja: Life and Lyrics (Madras, 1991)

G. Kuppuswamy and M. Hariharan: ‘Compositions of the Ettayapuram Rulers’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, lxii (1991), 82–94

T.S. Parthasarathy: ‘Margadarsi whom Swati Tirunal Followed’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, lxii (1991), 72–81

B.K. Ramaprabha: ‘Contribution of Shri Purandaradasa to Karnataka Music’, Gleanings of Indian Music and Art, ed. L. Omcherry and D. Bhalla (Delhi, 1991), 1–73

K. Anand Varma: ‘Contribution of Kerala Composers to Karnātak Music’, Gleanings of Indian Music and Art, ed. L. Omcherry and D. Bhalla (Delhi, 1991), 309–72

S.R. Jayasitalakshmi: ‘The Varnas of the Dikshitar Family’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, lxiii (1992), 108–17

T.V. Kuppuswami: Carnātic Music and the Tamils (Delhi, 1992)

W.J. Jackson: ‘Features of the Kriti: a Song Developed by Tyāgarāja’, AsM, xxiv/1 (1992–3), 19–66

J. Higgins: The Music of Bharata Natyam (New Delhi, 1993) [incl. cassette]

W.J. Jackson: ‘Tyagaraja and the Bhakti Community’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, lxiv (1993), 70–78

B. Dayananda Rao: Carnatic Music Composers: a Collection of Biographical Essays (Hyderabad, 1994)

W.J. Jackson: Tyāgarāja and the Renewal of Tradition (Delhi, 1994)

T.V. Subba Rao and S.R. Janakiraman, eds.: Ragas of the Sangita Saramrta by King Tulaja of Tanjore (Madras, 1994)

K. Hansen: ‘Performing Identities: Tyāgarāja Music Festivals in North America’, South Asia Research, xvi/2 (1996), 155–74

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

instruments

F. Fowke: ‘On the Vina or Indian Lyre’, Asiatick Researches, no.1 (1788), 295–9 [repr. in Tagore, 1875; S. Gupta: Music of India (Calcutta, 1962)]

C. Sachs: Die Musikinstrumente Indiens und Indonesiens (Berlin, 1915, 2/1923/R)

C. Marcel-Dubois: Les instruments de musique de l’Inde ancienne (Paris, 1941)

M.V. Cāmi Aiyar: Mirutanka pātamurai [Mrdangam compositions] (Tiruvannamalai, 1946/R)

Ś. Vandyopādhyāy: Sitār-mārg [Sitar method], ii–iii (Delhi, 1953–7)

S. Ethirajan: Mrdanga-svabodhinī [Mrdangam tutor] (Madras, 1956)

B.K. Roy Choudhury: ‘The Veena-paddhati of Hindusthani Music’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxviii (1957), 72–6

B. and R. Dās: Mrdang-tablā-prabhākar [Illumination of mrdanga and tablā] (Hathras, 1959–60)

Bh. Śarmā: Tāla-prakāś [Light on tāla] (Hathras, 1959, 4/1970, ed. L. Garga)

R.E. Brown: The Mrdanga: a Study of Drumming in South India (diss., UCLA, 1965)

S. Krishnaswami: Musical Instruments of India (New Delhi, 1965/R)

D. Murphy: ‘The Structure, Repair and Acoustical Properties of the Classical Drums of India’, Journal of the Music Academy, Madras, xxxvi (1965), 223–47

Bh. Śarmā: Sitāramālikā [Sitār garland] (Hathras, 3/1966, ed. L. Garga)

S. Vaśisth: Tāl-mārtand [Illumination of tāla] (Hathras, 4/1967)

K.S. Kothari: Indian Folk Musical Instruments (New Delhi, 1968), 64–6

T. Venkatarama Iyer: The Art of Playing Mrdangam (Madras, 1969)

N.A. Jairazbhoy: ‘A Preliminary Survey of the Oboe in India’, EthM, xiv (1970), 375–88

L.M. Miśra: Bhāratīya sangīta-vādya [Indian musical instruments] (New Delhi, 1973)

R.M. Stewart: The Tabla in Perspective (diss., UCLA, 1974)

B.C. Deva: ‘The Double-Reed Aerophone in India’, YIFMC, vii (1975), 77–84

N.A. Jairazbhoy: ‘The South Asian Double-Reed Aerophone Reconsidered’, EthM, xxiv (1980), 147–56

A. Dick: ‘the Earlier History of the Shawm in India’, GSJ, xxxvii (1984), 80–98

K.S. Subramanian: ‘An Introduction to the Vina’, AsM, xvi/2 (1985), 7–82

R. Flora: ‘Spiralled-Leaf Reedpipes and Shawms of the Indian Ocean Littoral: two Related Regional Traditions’, Musicology Australia, ix (1986), 39–52

I. Wrazen: ‘The Early History of the Vīnā and Bīn in South and Southeast Asia’, AsM, xviii/1 (1986), 25–55

J. Bor: ‘The Voice of the Sarangi’, National Centre for the Performing Arts Quarterly Journal, xv/3–4 (1986); xvi/1 (1987), 9–183

J. Kippen: The Tabla of Lucknow: a Cultural Analysis of a Musical Tradition (Cambridge, 1988)

R. Flora: ‘Observations on the Hindustani Śahnāī: its Structure and Performance Techniques’, Von der Vielfalt Musikalischer Kultur: Festschrift für Josef Kuckertz, ed. R. Schumacher (Salzburg, 1992), 1–4, 207–16

A. Miner: Sitar and Sarod in the 18th and 19th Centuries (Wilhelmshaven, 1993)

J.S. Hamilton: Sitar Music in Calcutta: an Ethnomusicological Study (Delhi, 1994)

R. Flora: ‘Styles of the Śahnāī in Recent Decades: from naubat to gāyakīang’, Yearbook for Traditional Music, xxvii (1995), 52–75

India, Subcontinent of, §III: Theory and practice of classical music., Bibliography

aesthetics

A.A. Bake: ‘The Aesthetics of Indian Music’, British Journal of Aesthetics, iv/1 (1964), 47–57

P.L. Sharma: ‘Rasa Theory and Indian Music’, Sangeet Natak, no.16 (1970), 57–64

P.L. Sharma: ‘Rāga and Rasa’, IMSCR XII: Berkeley 1977, 525–28

S. Ray: ‘Tagore on Music and Musical Aesthetics’, Sangeet Natak, no.56 (1980), 17–43

S.K. Saxena: ‘The Concept of Raga: an Essay in Understanding’, Sangeet Natak, nos.101–2 (1991), 32–46

J.B. Katz: ‘Music and Aesthetics: an Early Indian Perspective’, EMc, xxiv (1996), 407–20

India, Subcontinent of