Iacobus Leodiensis [Iacobus de Montibus, Iacobus de Oudenaerde]

II. Folk and popular music

1. Before 1948.

2. After 1948.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Israel, §II: Folk and popular music

1. Before 1948.

An area of musical creativity originating in Erets-Israel (‘land of Israel’) was Erets-Israeli song, which consists of Hebrew texts set to music with a monophonic texture, usually by identifiable Erets-Israeli composers during the period 1882–1948. Erets-Israeli songs developed alongside other Hebrew songs sung in Erets-Israel up to 1948.

The origins of Hebrew songs coincide with the revival of Hebrew culture in Europe and the beginning of the Zionist movement in the latter half of the 19th century. The Hebrew cultural revival included literature and poetry, just as the Zionist movement brought with it waves of immigration to Erets-Israel.

(i) Era of the First Immigration (1882–1903).

The majority of songs in Erets-Israel during the era of the first immigration were brought by immigrants. Songs typically expressed a longing for Erets-Israel along with the hope for rebirth in the homeland. Many of the song lyrics were written in Hebrew by poets who were part of the Hibat Sion (love of Zion) and Hathiyah (revival) movements, but who, for the most part, had never visited Erets-Israel. The majority of song melodies were borrowed from Hasidic and Yiddish sources, and from Russian, Romanian and Polish folk and popular songs.

Most melodies were in minor keys and in duple metre, at times in slow march-like tempos, with typical Hebrew syllabic emphasis on the penultimate syllable. These songs are also referred to as Hibat Tzion, among them Hatiqvah, a song that became the anthem for the Zionist movement, later becoming the Israeli national anthem.

(ii) Eras of the Second and Third Immigrations (1904–14, 1919–23).

Four distinct song types characterize these eras. First, Hibat Tzion songs continued from the previous era, becoming part of the second immigration's repertory. The second category includes songs composed within Erets-Israeli educational institutions. With the establishment of educational institutions in cities and villages and the inclusion of songs in school music curricula, the need for suitable materials became evident. Until this time appropriate pre-school and school songs were almost non-existent, resulting in new musical materials, primarily songs, composed by some of the music teachers. Teacher-composers such as Karchewsky (1873–1926) and Idelsohn (1882–1938) began their activities in the 1910s, and thus were the first Erets-Israeli composers. The third category includes songs with Arab melodies that were widespread in Erets-Israel to which Hebrew texts were fitted, e.g. Hachmisimi, Bein Nehar Prat, Yad ‘Anugah and Ani Re'itiha. These were usually love songs characterized by use of the interval of a 2nd (often an augmented 2nd), slow tempos and rubato. The wide circulation of these songs indicates an integration with a widespread native Eastern culture. The fourth category includes songs with melodies originating in Eastern European Hasidic culture. Such texts include short verses from the Bible or from prayer books. These songs include melodic redundancy, repetition of lyrics, binary structures, ranges of one octave and duple metre. El Yivneh Ha-miqdash, Vetaher Libeinu, El Yivneh Ha-galil and Zivhu Sedeq are examples of songs that also made up the principal component of horah dances. The rise of communal singing and horah dancing became distinguishing characteristics of the Erets-Israeli settlement.

(iii) Eras of the Fourth and Fifth Immigrations (1924–48).

The 1920s was a period of dramatic change for Erets-Israeli song. Composers such as Hanina Karchewsky, Abraham Zvi Idelsohn and Yoel Engel (1868–1927) were ending their active periods, while others, such as Yedidiah Admon (1894–1985), Nahum Nardi (1901–77), Shalom Postolsky (1898-1949), Menashe Ravina (1888–1968), Mattityahu Shelem (1904–75), Mordecai Zeira (1905–68), among others, were beginning careers. Several composers lacked basic formal music education, while others did not know or use musical notation. Their songs were intrinsically different from those of their predecessors; for example, syllabic emphasis, moved to the last syllable of words, brought about changes in musical rhythm. In these and in subsequent years, subjects of songs composed and sung in Erets-Israel concerned work and the homeland, the landscapes of Galilee and the Izrael Valley, construction and creation. Song lyrics written by the best Erets-Israeli poets often used third-person plural verbs to express a national, collective ‘I’.

Many songs later included in the Hebrew song repertory are by identifiable composers who considered their efforts as contributing to the building of a renewed Hebrew culture. As a nation of immigrants, Erets-Israel lacked a long-standing tradition of folksong. The goal of the national movement included a rapid realization of folksong in the revived Hebrew language, and composers wrote hoping to achieve a wide circulation. In their search for musical roots, many composers of Erets-Israeli song adopted the Dorian mode to evoke an older style. The Yemenite trill was also used, as was rhythmic syncopation.

Many country, shepherd, ceremonial, children's and holiday songs were composed in the 1930s and 40s. Eastern influences existed in songs from Eastern composers such as Sarah Levi, Nissan Cohen Melamed and others, or by means of environmental influences on composers such as Yedidiah Admon, Nahum Nardi, Emanuel Amiran and others. Internal and external political events transformed Erets-Israeli song at that time; Arab-Jewish conflicts highlighted ‘Watchmen's Songs’ and ‘Defenders' Songs’. Attempts to create a rural culture encouraged compositions from working settlements, particularly those composers from the Kibbutz movement such as David Zehavi, Mattityahu Shelem, Jehuda Sharet and others. The encouragement for young Israelis to enlist in the British army during World War II inspired Hebrew ‘Army Songs’ composed by Mordecai Zeira, Daniel Sambursky and others. The Holocaust brought the influence of Yiddish village songs, along with political and propagandist Russian tunes.

The War of Independence and the establishment of the State of Israel brought about the conclusion of the era of Erets-Israel. Approximately 4600 Hebrew songs were circulated and sung during this epoch and of these approximately 57% could be considered Eretz-Israeli.

Israel, §II: Folk and popular music

2. After 1948.

(i) Folk music.

Diverse Israeli songs were discernible immediately following statehood, a direct continuation of Eretz-Israeli song. Mourning and bereavement songs, memorials to the Independence War and victory songs were heard along with songs influenced by foreign dances (tango, rumba, paso doble and mamba), and songs, both new and translated, that were products of festivals of European and American popular songs.

Composers continued writing in the period after statehood, and in the 1950s a ‘country song’ or ‘shepherd song’ style emerged that was a continuation of the ‘rural country’ style of the 1940s. Texts drew on pastoral and rural settings, florid language and cries of ‘hey’ and ‘ho’. Melodies were in minor scales and modes with relatively simple structures. Accompanying instruments included the acoustic guitar, which often dictated harmonic accompaniment, accordion and the Arab clay drum. Special dances developed at this time, known as ‘folkdances’.

Representative composers of this period include Emanuel Zamir (1925–62), Gill Aldemah (b 1928), Amitai Ne’eman (b 1926) and Josef Hadar (b 1926), who formed the first generation born in Israel (most were accordion players). Lahaqat Ha-nahal, the first military performing troupe, was created in 1951 for the Israeli army to entertain soldiers with skits and songs portraying Israeli army life. The international recognition of Tsahal (lsraeli army), raised the status of military performing troupes and thus of Israeli song. A large repertory of songs was created by military troupes, who were awarded top honours in song festivals. These troupes performed extensively, providing venues for many who would later become leading artists, composers, arrangers and directors.

Materials for the troupes were commissioned from the best Israeli composers, among them Alexander Argov (1914–96) and Moshe Velensky (1910–97), who were also prolific Erets-Israeli composers. Other Israeli composers who wrote for the troupes include Nurit Hirsh (b 1942), Matti Kaspi (b 1949), Aryeh Lavnon (b 1932), Yair Rosenblum (1944–96), Naomi Shemer (b 1930), Yohanan Zarai (b 1930) and Dov Zeltzer (b 1932). A significant number of Israeli composers took advantage of writing for military troupes.

A transformation of Israeli song took place in the latter half of the 1960s. The accordion was replaced by the electric organ, the Arab clay drum was replaced by a drum set, and electric and bass guitars were added. This transformation stimulated the rise of ‘beat’ and rock groups in peripheral areas. The band, Hahalonot Hagvohim, heralded the introduction of rock-styled Israeli song. Many performers, among them duos (Ran and Nama, Ilka and Aviva, Ha-dudaim, Ha-parvarim), trios (Shloshet Ha-metarim, Gesher Ha-yarqon), and troupes (Batsal Yarok, Ha-tarnegolim) in addition to hundreds of singers, enriched the Israeli song repertory.

The Six-Day War represented a watershed for Israeli song, flooding the country with ‘homeland’ songs resembling Eretz-Israeli homeland songs. Together with ‘countryside’ songs, homeland songs were integrated into the nostalgia that inundated Israel in the 1960s. The blend of old and new homeland songs formed a current of Israeli music that is referred to as ‘Songs of Erets-Israel’. Naomi Shemer (b 1930), composer of the song Yerushalayim Shel Zahav (Jerusalem of Gold), became symbolic of this era.

Television broadcasting began in 1967 in Israel, providing venues and wide exposure for performers. In this era, a number of songwriters also doubled as performers. Shalom Hanoch, Samuel Kraus, Matti Kaspi, Yehudith Ravitz, Schlomo Gronic are composer-singers who were active as independent soloists, while others worked in groups, duos or ensembles (Ha-lul, Ha-churchelim, Ha-keves Ha-shishaasar). The talents of Arik Einstein over the course of 30 years stimulated composers such as Shalom Hanoch (b 1946), Micky Gavrielov (b 1949), Yoni Rechter (b 1951) and others. The group, Kaveret, made its first appearance at the beginning of the 1970s, and despite their brief period of activity, introduced a new sound to Israeli song. A new Hasidic song style developed after the Six-Day War, influenced by annual festivals of Hasidic songs taking place as early as 1969. Hasidic songs employ biblical and prayer book texts, mostly repeated verses with tunes mostly in minor keys, intermediate ranges (an octave to a 10th), simple structure, regular rhythm and basic harmonic progressions (I–IV–V).

The influences of Eastern Jewish communities were felt before the establishment of the State of Israel, owing to the presence of Yemenite and Arab songs. After the Six-Day War, especially since the 1980s, ethnic consciousness grew, and Eastern styles became an important marker, known as the Eastern Mediterranean style. This style includes the use of melisma, the augmented 2nd and melodic ornamentation with the range of quarter- and half-tones. Instrumentation generally consists of electronic instruments, electric and bass guitars and drum sets, and is expanded at times to include, the ‘ūd, qanūn, and darbouka. Among composers associated with this style are Avihu Medina (b 1948), Boaz Sharabi, Shlomo Bar and others.

In the first half of the 1990s, singer-composers who performed their songs with their ensembles gained prominence, such as Yuval Banai with the group Meshina, Arkadi Dukhin with Ha-haverim Shel Natasha, Aviv Gefen (b 1971) with Ha-ta‘uyot, Rami Kleinstein (b 1963) with Hmo'etza, Shlomo Arzi (b 1949), Yehuda Poliker and many others.

(ii) Popular music.

The first signs of a popular music industry are found in the mid-1930s with the setting up of a record company and a radio station. Professional immigrant musicians from Germany and Poland opened venues for music theatre and cabaret in the growing cities of Haifa and Tel Aviv, where contemporary European songs were sung with Hebrew texts. The diversity of styles can be heard on the 1933 recordings Mi-shirei erets Yisra’el (‘Songs from the land of Israel’).

Although these musics continued to be performed after the state of Israel had been established, up until the 1970s popular music was dominated by state-controlled cultural policies and mass media. The Israel Defence Forces (IDF) entertainment groups (lehakot tsva’iyot) were characteristic of this period. They performed songs which combined ‘native’ elements with international popular styles, were arranged as group songs with short solo sections and were initially accompanied by accordion and derbuka (drum). These songs attained wide popularity and were disseminated on LPs and by radio. By the 1970s the distinction between military and civilian artists had become blurred and IDF artists became major stars.

Other songs of this period included the pizmonim or shirei meshorerim (‘songs of the poets’) performed by duos or trios, such as Duda'im, Parvarim and Shlishiyat Gesher Ha-yarqon, and were accompanied by acoustic guitar. Unlike previous genres, these songs stressed individual, urban experiences rather than collective or national topics. During the 1950s popular musics emerged based on Iraqi and Egyptian urban styles. These were performed in bars and at parties by Jewish immigrants from Arab countries. Greek popular songs, performed in Hebrew, became popular during the 1960s, and these and songs derived from Arab styles were perceived as oppositional to musics sanctioned by the cultural establishment.

From the 1970s onwards Israeli popular musics have diversified and have been increasingly influenced by Anglo-American styles, particularly rock. Contemporary popular styles may be divided into four categories. Firstly, pop and rock of foreign origin, particularly from the UK and USA. Secondly, shirei erets Yisra’el, which includes ‘folk’ songs, IDF ensemble songs and popular songs in a folk spirit, particularly those composed by N. Shemer. Thirdly, Hebrew songs in Western popular styles such as disco, rap and middle-of-the-road. Israeli rock was started by a group of artists including Arik Einstein, Shalom Hanokh and Shmulik Kraus, who were influenced by the Beatles. The most influential Israeli rock band continues to be Lahaqat Kaveret (‘The beehive band’) who performed in 1971–3. Many Hebrew pop songs are influenced by Europop and Israel has twice won the Eurovision Song Contest. Fourthly, musiqah mizrahit (‘eastern music’) developed in the early 1970s which combines Greek, Turkish, Arab and Yemenite-Jewish styles and instruments with Western popular forms. Associated with the working class it achieves huge sales and has had a lasting appeal to a wide audience.

Israel, §II: Folk and popular music

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Shiloah and E. Cohen: ‘Major Trends of Change in Jewish Oriental Ethnic Music’, Popular Music, v (1985), 199–223

T. Bensky, J. Braun and U. Sharvit: ‘Towards a Study of Israeli Urban Musical Culture: the Case of Kiryan Ono’, AsM, xvii/2 (1986), 168–209

M. Regev: ‘The Musical Soundscape as a Contest Area: “Oriental Music” and Israeli Popular Music’, Media, Culture and Society, vii (1986), 343–55

J. Halper, E. Seroussi and P. Squires-Kidron: ‘Musica Mizrahit: Ethnicity and Class Culture in Israel’, Popular Music, vii (1989), 131–42

M. Regev: ‘The Field of Popular Music in Israel’, World Music, Politics and Social Change, ed. S. Firth (Manchester, 1989), 145–55

M. Regev: ‘Israeli Rock: or a Study in the Politics of “Local Authenticity”’, Popular Music, xi/1 (1992), 1–14

M. Regev: ‘Musica Mizrahit, Israeli Rock and National Culture in Israel’, Popular Music, xv (1996), 275–84

E. Seroussi: Popular Music in Israel: the First Fifty Years (Cambridge, MA, 1996)

A. Horowitz: ‘Performance in Disputed Territory: Israeli Mediterranean Music’, Musical Performance, i/3 (1997), 43–53

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