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539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms

Grammar across turns and sentences | 243

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Different kinds of reference

reference

endophoric

exophoric

anaphoric

cataphoric

REFERRING EXPRESSIONS

126

Endophoric (anaphoric and cataphoric) and exophoric references are made using

referring expressions. The people and things they refer to are called referents.

There are a number of types of referring expression. Among the most common

are:

pronouns (for example, he, she, it, mine, yours, this, that, these, those, some, none)

determiners (for example, the, this, that, these, those)

adverbs (for example, here, there, then). 

In the following examples the referring items are in bold, and the referents are 

in green:

The children

looked tired. 

They’d been travelling all day.

(anaphoric reference)

A smartly-dressed lady

entered the shop. 

This lady had spent over one hundred 

pounds the day before.

(anaphoric reference)

They arrived at 

the resort

. 

Here at last was a place they could relax.

(anaphoric reference)

[blurb on the back cover of a paperback novel]

For a split second, 

she saw her own death, a gunmetal face fixed on the sky, all

around the faces and voices of Carn as 

she had known it. 

Josie Keenan

had

come home to the town of Carn, the only home 

she knew.

(cataphoric and anaphoric reference)

[public notice]

Vehicles parked 

here will be towed away.

(exophoric reference)

[notice in a train compartment]

These seats are reserved for disabled customers.

(exophoric reference)

[on a sign, accompanied by a direction arrow]

More antiques 

this way. 

(exophoric reference)

244 | Grammar across turns and sentences

Cambridge Grammar of English

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