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Gradable - capable of comparison, they don’t refer to absolute qualities: happy – sad, wet – dry BUT: single – marry, alive – dead we can’t use term gradable as they are contradictories.
Converses - (sell – buy, husband - wife)
Contradictory notions are mutually opposed and denying one another, e. g. alive means ‘not dead’ and impatient means ‘not patient’.
Contrary notions are also mutually opposed but they are gradable, e. g. old and young are the most distant elements of a series like: old : : middle-aged : : young,
Another classification of antonyms is based on a morphological approach:
root words form absolute antonyms (right : : wrong),
the presence of negative affixes creates derivational antonyms (happy : : unhappy).
derivational antonyms. The affixes in them serve to deny the quality stated in the stem. The opposition known : : unknown
Hypero-hypenymic relations ( plant – tree (oak, apple tree (…)), flower…)
part-and-whole relations (body – face, eyes, nose; house – kitchen, sitting room, window, bathroom)
hiratical relations (bishop, arch bishop, prist)
serious relations
psytrical relations
Non-semantic grouping is used in all branches of applied linguistics in the alphabetical organization of written words in most dictionaries. It’s of great practical value as the simplest and the most universal way of facilitating the search for the necessary word.
By a lexico-grammatical group we understand a class of words, which have a common lexico-grammatical meaning, a common paradigm, the same substituting elements and possibly a characteristic set of suffixes rendering the lexico-grammatical meaning. These groups are subsets of the parts of speech. Thus English nouns are subdivided into lexico-grammatical groups:personal names animal manes collective names for people collective names for animal abstract nouns material nouns object nouns proper names for people toponymic proper nouns
8 Semantic & non-semantic classifications of English words
Dictionaries: 1) Thesaurus of English words & phrases; 2) Dictionaries of synonyms & antonyms; 3) reverse (обратный) dictionaries; rhyming dictionaries. The lexicon of E-sh is a system: it’s huge (2 mln), it’s a system. Present day semantic theory focused its attention on the synchronic relations in the l-ge system. It’s concerned both with relations within l-ge & between l-ges. Meaning / sense relations are associated with a word (lexeme), lexical item & with lexical (semantic) structure. When we talk about the semantic structure of the lexicon, we are referring to the network of relationships which bind lexemes together & enable us to perceive the lexicon as a system of the l-ge. The majority of linguists agree on one basic point: vocabulary / lexicon should be studied as a system – a set of interrelated subsystems, it means that no lexeme exists in isolation & there’s no lexeme without relation. Today we know what kinds of lexical-semantical relations exist, but the descriptive task remains (the Cambridge encyclopedia of the E-sh l-ge – the room for research workers). What are the relations between the words & the lexicon? 1) polysemy – the relations between the meanings of the word; 2) relations between the words in the lexicon: the relations of similarity – synonymic relations. There are common semantic components in semantic structures of the words, e. g. father – dad, house – mansion. There are basic relations: synonymic; relations of polarity / antonymic relations. 3) hypero-hyponimic relations; 4) part & whole relations (a jacket – a sleeve, a car – a wheel); 5) cyclical r.; 6) series r; 7) hierarchical relations. Lexical hierarchy presupposes that you have a number of words which are connected in a way. Their relations are relations if hierarchy, religious terms – pope, cardinal, bishop). Synonyms. There may be no lexemes which have exactly the same meaning. It’s possible to find some nuance which separates them or some can not. Br. E-sh: autumn – fall (poetic). There’s no stylistic difference, e. g.: solt – soltium chloride. The same reference but ling. meaning is different. Not complete synonyms: youth – youngster = synonyms, but there’s a difference in emotional attitude. There are no absolute synonyms. If forms are different, their meanings are different, there are numerous dictionaries of synonyms. Antonyms. Subdivisions: 1) group-gradable antonyms / contraries: large – small. It’s possible to say larger, smaller; happy – sad; wet – dry. The degree may be changed. 2) contradictories: e. g.: single – married (we can’t say about degree), alive – dead; 3) converse terms: buy – sell, over – under. Conversion is a different
process: net – to net. Arnold: Lexico-grammatical groups – a class of words which have a common lexico-grammatical meaning, a common paradigm, the same substitutional elements & possible & characteristic sets of suffixes meandering a lexico-grammatical meaning. The E-sh nouns are subdivided into the following lexico-grammatical groups: personal names, animal names, collective names for people, collective names for animals, abstract nouns, material nouns, object nouns, proper names for people, toponymic proper names. The most traditional classification – parts of speech.
9.Stylistic classification of the Eng lexicon
There is no lexical general accepted stylistic classification, which would be employed by all lexicography.
Different dictionaries present quite consistent labeling system systems. They can con be considered impeccable(безупречный)
Labels:
1.argot; 2.dated; 3.derogatory; 4.humorous; 5.ironical; 6.jocular; 7.obsolete; 8.poetic; 9.taboo
Dictionaries differ widely in the way they marked, their labels may differ. The common feature of common words is the universal character: they are not restricted in their use; in all spheres are used. This feature makes the layer the most stable of all words.
The stylistic structure of lexicon:
common words (core) ,foreign words, archaic words, dialectal words, vulgar words, slang words, technical words, scientific words.
Special literary vocabulary: poetical words, nonce words, archaic words, terms, foreignism and barbarism.
Standard Eng vocabulary: neutral words, terms, foreignism a barbarism.
Common literary vocabulary: neutral words, poetical words, nonce words, archaic words, terms, foreignism and barbarism.
Special colloquial vocabulary (non-literary): professionalism, nonce words, vulgarism, jargon, dialectal words, slang
Common colloquial vocabulary: neutral words, professionalism, nonce words, vulgarism, jargon, dialectal words, slang
№ 10 Word structure. Morphemic analysis of English words.
Most of the English lexicon is constituted by word which have several morphemes. (75 % engl. Words – polymorphemic words).
In ME most English vocabulary arises grows by making new lexemes out of old one, by adding an affixation to previously existing forms altering their words class and meaning by combining the existing words (basis) to produce compounds: derivatives, derived words (friendly – unfriendly, teapot, bag bone).
The contribution of word formation to the grows and development of English lexicons is second to none, although a great deal belong to borrowing and semantic derivation.
A complex word structure – the result of different word-formation process (illegal, discouraging, uninteresting)
A complex word structure may be connected with borrowing and further identification of certain morpheme in the system of language recipient.
Moreover similar international structure may be the result of different word formation process. E.g. discouraging – discourage + ing; uninteresting – un + interesting – morphologically(structurally) they are the same.
The morphemic analyses and derived analyses they are differ in the aims and basic elements.
To eye – monomorphic (root word) It’s a derived word.A morpheme – the smallest meaningful language unit. Morphemes may be classified:
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