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Discourse marker noun
A word or phrase that signals what kind of information will follow or tells us about information which has just been given; e.g. in the sentence She was interested in many subjects, for example, food technology. ‘for example’ signals that an example will follow. In the sentence By the way, they’ve become good friends. ‘by the way’ signals that the remark gives additional information which
is different or marks a contrast to the previous information.
Dynamic verb noun
Verbs referring to actions, events or bodily sensations and that express some kind of action. They can be used in the progressive/continuous form, e.g. His leg is hurting him; They’re eating their supper; It’s changing shape.
Elision noun
When a sound is left out in connected speech because it is followed by a similar sound; e.g. in he gave up politics the /p/ in ‘up’ is likely to be elided: /hiːɡeɪvʌpɒlətɪks/.
Ellipsis noun
When a word, phrase or clause is left out in discourse because it is unnecessary for conveying meaning; e.g. in the sentence They made a big effort and ended up winning the prize, ‘they’ is left out before ‘ended up’ because it is clear what the subject of this verb is.
Exophoric reference noun
Reference to something that is outside the text; often achieved through pronouns or demonstrative adjectives; e.g. in the sentence Pass me that piece of paper, will you? ‘that’ is exophoric, referring to something in the speaker’s surroundings.
Finite verb noun
There are two types of verb: finite verbs and non-finite verbs. A finite verb shows person, number and tense; e.g. in the sentence He goes away, laughing, ‘goes’ shows tense (present simple) and number and person (he) whereas ‘laughing’ shows neither.
Fricative noun and adjective
A sound produced by creating friction in the air flow, e.g. /f/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/, /ð/.
Fronting noun
Putting part of a sentence or utterance in a non-standard position at the beginning of a sentence/utterance, usually to emphasise the topic, e.g. That music, I can’t stand it.
Function word noun
A word with little semantic meaning that is included in a sentence or utterance mainly to help form its grammatical structure and convey its grammatical meaning; e.g. in the sentence Bill was spending the evening at home, ‘was’, ‘the’ and ‘at’ are function words.
Gradable/ungradable adjective/adverb noun
A gradable adjective or adverb can be measured in degrees. Non-gradable adjectives or adverbs cannot be. Examples of gradable adjectives are exciting, solid, interesting. They can be qualified by words such as more, rather, quite which show degree. Examples of ungradable adjectives are perfect, alive, salaried.
Hyponym noun
A hyponym describes a relationship between words. Hyponyms are words that are examples of a particular type or category, e.g. potatoes, carrots, peas are hyponyms of vegetables; chair, table, sofa are hyponyms of furniture.
Hypothetical adjective
Something which can be imagined or suggested; improbable; impossible e.g. If they’d been here, you could have met them; If only I had more time.
Initialism noun
A set of letters representing the first letters of two or more words where the letters are pronounced as letters, not as a word, such as BBC, DVD. N.B. Initialisms are different from acronyms such as NATO or Radar, where the letters are pronounced as words not letters.
Lexical chain noun
A series of words connected to each other through a topic and which in discourse serve to provide cohesion, e.g. shop shop assistant counter sale.
Denotation noun
The dictionary definition of a word, e.g. a chair is a piece of furniture with legs and we use it to sit on.
Figurative adjective
An imaginative meaning of a word, e.g. he put all his heart into his new job – ‘heart’ has the figurative meaning of making a lot of effort.
Literal adjective
The original or basic meaning of a word rather than an imaginative or poetic meaning, e.g. the literal meaning of heart –the organ in your chest that sends blood around your body. See denotation.
Pragmatic adjective
The meaning given to an utterance by the situation in which it occurs; e.g. would you mind keeping quiet said by a teacher to a student is likely to have the pragmatic meaning of a command rather than an enquiry about willingness.
Semantic adjective
The meanings of words and how they are connected to one another, e.g. as synonyms, antonyms.
Modifier noun
A word which adds further meaning to a noun phrase; e.g. in the sentence I’d like to try on that leather coat in the window, ‘leather’ and ‘in the window’ are modifiers.
Morpheme noun
The smallest unit that has meaning in a language. A morpheme is a base word or an affix; e.g. carefully contains three morphemes: care, –ful, –ly; walked contains two: walk, –ed.
Non-finite verb noun
There are two types of verb: finite verbs and non-finite verbs. A non-finite verb does not show person, number or tense. Infinitives and present/past participles are non-finite verbs, e.g. the infinitive (He needed to have a holiday), the present participle (Not understanding the question, he gave the wrong answer).
Repair strategy noun
An utterance which corrects or modifies what has just been said e.g. Can you tell me where I can, um, send, um, I mean, post this letter? Using Um and I mean are this learner’s repair strategy.
Rhetorical question noun
A question that does not expect or require an answer, and is often used to create interest, e.g. Where have I put my keys? Do you know how many people in the world like ice-cream?
Style noun
A characteristic way of conveying information, e.g. humorous, journalistic, casual, business-like.
Superordinate noun
The name for a category or a type of thing; e.g. vehicle is the superordinate for car, bus, train, bike etc.; job is the superordinate for postman, teacher, computer scientist, politician etc.
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